India-Pakistan Relations

Introduction

India-Pakistan relations are among the most consequential bilateral relationships in South Asia. The two countries share a long border, historical connections, cultural links and economic and environmental interdependence, while also experiencing prolonged political, territorial and security disputes.

The relationship has been shaped by the legacy of the 1947 Partition, wars, the Jammu and Kashmir dispute, cross-border terrorism allegations, nuclear deterrence, water issues, diplomatic crises and periodic attempts at normalization.

The relationship is therefore an important case study in conflict, deterrence, diplomacy, bilateralism, confidence-building measures and regional security.

Historical Background

Partition of British India in 1947 resulted in the creation of India and Pakistan as independent states.

The process generated major demographic movements and communal violence, while also leaving unresolved territorial and political questions.

Accession of Jammu and Kashmir became one of the central disputes between the two new states.

The first India-Pakistan war began in 1947 and was followed by the involvement of the United Nations Security Council.

Major Wars and Conflicts

India and Pakistan fought major wars in:

• 1947-48
• 1965
• 1971

The Kargil conflict occurred in 1999 in the Kargil sector of Jammu and Kashmir.

These conflicts contributed to the development of military doctrines, diplomatic mechanisms and confidence-building arrangements between the two states.

The Kashmir Dispute

Jammu and Kashmir dispute refers to the unresolved territorial and political dispute involving India and Pakistan, with the status and political aspirations of the people of the region forming a central component.

The United Nations Security Council first considered the India-Pakistan question in 1948. Resolution 47 of 21 April 1948 addressed restoration of peace and order and the question of a plebiscite in the State of Jammu and Kashmir.

India and Pakistan hold different positions concerning the legal and political status of Jammu and Kashmir.

India-Pakistan Positions

India’s position emphasizes its sovereignty over Jammu and Kashmir and maintains that outstanding issues between India and Pakistan should be addressed through peaceful bilateral mechanisms. India’s official materials also identify cross-border terrorism as a major concern in bilateral relations.

Pakistan’s position emphasizes the disputed status of Jammu and Kashmir and the right of the Kashmiri people to self-determination in accordance with relevant UN Security Council resolutions.

A glossary treatment should distinguish these national positions from the underlying historical record and from the text and interpretation of international instruments.

Simla Agreement

Simla Agreement was signed by India and Pakistan on 2 July 1972 following the 1971 war.

It committed both countries to resolving differences by peaceful means and through bilateral negotiations or other mutually agreed peaceful means.

It also provided that the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir would be respected without prejudice to the recognized position of either side.

Line of Control

Line of Control (LoC) is the military control line separating the areas administered by India and Pakistan in Jammu and Kashmir.

It is not the same as an internationally recognized international border.

The Simla Agreement established an obligation for both sides to respect the Line of Control without seeking to alter it unilaterally.

Nuclear Deterrence

India and Pakistan conducted nuclear tests in 1998 and subsequently developed nuclear deterrence relationships.

Nuclear deterrence seeks to prevent major military action through the threat of unacceptable retaliation.

The India-Pakistan relationship is an important example of nuclearized rivalry, in which conventional military competition and territorial disputes exist alongside nuclear weapons.

Conventional Deterrence

Conventional deterrence relies on non-nuclear military capabilities to discourage an adversary from taking military action.

India and Pakistan maintain substantial conventional armed forces and military capabilities.

The coexistence of nuclear and conventional deterrence creates a complex strategic environment.

Confidence-Building Measures

Confidence-building measures (CBMs) are arrangements designed to reduce mistrust, uncertainty and the risk of accidental conflict.

India and Pakistan have developed several mechanisms over time, including:

• military hotlines
• advance notification of certain military exercises
• agreements concerning nuclear installations
• arrangements concerning prisoners and civilians
• ceasefire understandings
• diplomatic communication channels

CBMs do not necessarily resolve disputes. Their primary purpose is risk reduction.

India-Pakistan Ceasefire

Ceasefire means an agreed suspension or reduction of hostilities.

India and Pakistan have experienced repeated ceasefire arrangements along the LoC. Military-to-military communication has been an important component of crisis management.

Terrorism and Security

Terrorism is one of the most contentious issues in India-Pakistan relations.

India has consistently identified terrorism originating from or operating through Pakistani territory as a central security concern. Pakistan has rejected Indian allegations and has also raised concerns regarding actions and developments affecting its own security.

The issue is important because allegations of terrorism can directly affect diplomacy, military readiness, trade and crisis stability.

Indus Waters

Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) was signed by India and Pakistan in 1960 with the World Bank’s involvement.

The treaty establishes a framework governing the use of the waters of the Indus river system and provides mechanisms for addressing disagreements concerning interpretation and application.

Water diplomacy refers to diplomatic engagement concerning shared water resources.

The Indus system demonstrates how environmental interdependence can continue even amid political conflict.

Trade and Economic Relations

India and Pakistan possess significant potential for bilateral trade because of:

• geographical proximity
• complementary markets
• large populations
• transport connections
• cultural familiarity

However, political tensions have repeatedly restricted economic relations.

Economic interdependence refers to mutual dependence created by trade, investment, supply chains and other economic relationships.

Greater economic interaction can create incentives for cooperation, but economic interdependence does not automatically eliminate security rivalry.

People-to-People Relations

People-to-people relations include:

• family connections
• religious pilgrimage
• cultural exchanges
• academic contacts
• sports
• media
• tourism
• divided-family interactions

These links can remain significant even when formal diplomatic relations deteriorate.

Bilateralism

Bilateralism refers to direct relations and negotiations between two states.

India emphasizes bilateral mechanisms in its official approach to Pakistan relations. The Simla Agreement itself provides for bilateral negotiations or other peaceful means mutually agreed upon by both sides.

Multilateral diplomacy, by contrast, involves multiple states or international institutions.

Crisis Management

India-Pakistan relations provide an important example of crisis management.

Crisis management seeks to prevent a political or military crisis from escalating into prolonged conflict.

Its tools may include:

• hotlines
• diplomatic channels
• third-party communication
• military restraint
• ceasefire arrangements
• public messaging
• confidence-building measures

Key Distinctions

Kashmir dispute vs Line of Control: The Kashmir dispute concerns the broader political and territorial question, while the LoC is the military control line separating areas administered by India and Pakistan.

Deterrence vs defence: Deterrence seeks to prevent an adversary from acting. Defence seeks to protect against or defeat an action if it occurs.

Ceasefire vs peace treaty: A ceasefire suspends or reduces hostilities. A peace treaty seeks a broader political settlement.

Bilateralism vs mediation: Bilateralism involves direct engagement between the two parties. Mediation involves a third party attempting to facilitate agreement.

Key Terms at a Glance

• India-Pakistan relations
• Partition
• Kashmir dispute
• Line of Control
• Simla Agreement
• Nuclear deterrence
• Conventional deterrence
• Confidence-building measures
• Crisis management
• Cross-border terrorism
• Indus Waters Treaty
• Water diplomacy
• Bilateralism
• Peace process
• Ceasefire
• Strategic stability
• People-to-people relations
• Regional security

Related Glossaries

• 3.4 Balance of Power and Balance of Threat
• 9.3 Security Dilemma and Strategic Stability
• 9.4 Deterrence, Compellence and Containment
• 10.5 Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution
• 11.2 Nuclear Deterrence and Strategic Stability
• 15.1 South Asia: Regional Concepts and Institutions
• 15.3 Kashmir and Regional Disputes
• 15.5 China-Pakistan Relations and CPEC
• 15.6 India-China Strategic Competition
• 15.8 Indian Ocean Geopolitics