Glossary – Sociology – Sociological Theories – Conflict Theory and Neo-Marxist Perspectives

Conflict Theory and Neo-Marxist Perspectives Introduction Conflict theory is a major sociological perspective that explains society through unequal power relations, competition over resources and struggles among individuals and social groups. Unlike functionalism, which emphasizes social order and institutional stability, conflict theory focuses on inequality, domination, exploitation and social transformation. The approach is strongly influenced by…

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Glossary – Sociology – Sociological Theories – Functionalism, Structural Functionalism and Social Equilibrium

Functionalism, Structural Functionalism and Social Equilibrium Introduction Functionalism is a major theoretical perspective in sociology that explains society as a system of interconnected institutions, structures and social practices that perform functions necessary for maintaining social order and continuity. According to functionalist thinking, society consists of different parts, including family, education, religion, economy, government and law….

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Glossary – Sociology – Sociological Theories – Georg Simmel and the Forms of Social Interaction

Georg Simmel and the Forms of Social Interaction Introduction Georg Simmel (1858–1918) was a German sociologist, philosopher and social theorist who made important contributions to the study of social interaction, social relationships, urban life, culture and modernity. He is regarded as one of the early pioneers of formal sociology. Simmel argued that society is not…

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Glossary – Sociology – Sociological Theories – Max Weber – Social Action, Authority and Rationalization

Max Weber: Social Action, Authority and Rationalization Introduction Max Weber (1864–1920) was a German sociologist, economist and political thinker whose work profoundly influenced modern sociology. He developed an interpretive approach to understanding society, emphasizing the meanings individuals attach to their actions and the ways these actions are shaped by social relationships, institutions and structures of…

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Glossary – Sociology – Sociological Theories – Karl Marx – Class, Capitalism and Historical Materialism

Karl Marx: Class, Capitalism and Historical Materialism Introduction Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German philosopher, economist, historian and social theorist whose ideas profoundly influenced sociology, political economy and modern political thought. He developed a critical analysis of capitalism, arguing that economic organization shapes social relationships, political institutions and historical change. Marx viewed society as structured…

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World Affairs – World Order Before the First World War – Imperial Rivalries

Imperial Rivalries Introduction Imperial rivalries were competitions among powerful states to acquire territories, resources, markets, strategic positions and political influence beyond their own borders. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, European imperial expansion intensified competition among Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Italy and other powers. These rivalries were driven by economic interests, nationalism, military…

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World Affairs – World Order Before the First World War – Scramble for Africa

Scramble for Africa Introduction The Scramble for Africa refers to the rapid European occupation, partition and colonization of African territories during the late nineteenth century, particularly between the 1880s and the First World War. During this period, European powers competed to acquire African territories for economic, strategic and political reasons. The process transformed the continent’s…

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World Affairs – World Order Before the First World War – Ottoman Decline and European Politics

Ottoman Decline and European Politics Introduction The decline of the Ottoman Empire was one of the most important long-term developments in European and international politics. Once a dominant power spanning southeastern Europe, western Asia and North Africa, the Ottoman Empire gradually lost military strength, administrative effectiveness and territorial control. Its weakening transformed the political environment…

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World Affairs – World Order Before the First World War – Eastern Question

Eastern Question Introduction The Eastern Question was a major diplomatic and geopolitical issue in European international relations during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It concerned the gradual weakening of the Ottoman Empire and the resulting competition among European powers over its territories, influence and strategic position. As Ottoman authority declined, European states became increasingly concerned…

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World Affairs – World Order Before the First World War – Rise of Germany as a Great Power

Rise of Germany as a Great Power Introduction The rise of Germany as a great power was one of the most consequential developments in nineteenth-century international relations. Following unification in 1871 under Prussian leadership, the German Empire rapidly emerged as a major military, industrial, economic and diplomatic force in Europe. Before unification, the German-speaking territories…

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Pashto – Literary Criticism – Major Pashto Literary Critics and Scholars

Major Pashto Literary Critics and Scholars Introduction The development of Pashto literature has depended not only on poets, novelists, dramatists and storytellers, but also on critics, historians, editors, linguists and researchers. These scholars preserve literary texts, investigate their origins, interpret their meanings, establish reliable editions and examine the historical and cultural conditions in which literature…

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Pashto – Literary Criticism – Critical Appreciation of Poetry and Prose

Critical Appreciation of Poetry and Prose Introduction Critical appreciation is the careful reading, interpretation and evaluation of a literary work. It seeks to understand not only what a poem or prose text says, but also how it communicates its meaning and what makes it artistically effective. In Pashto literature, critical appreciation is essential for studying…

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Pashto – Literary Criticism – Comparative Study of Classical and Modern Pashto Literature

Comparative Study of Classical and Modern Pashto Literature Introduction Classical and modern Pashto literature represent different historical experiences, literary conventions and intellectual environments. Comparing them helps readers understand both continuity and change: how inherited forms and ideas have survived, how writers have transformed them, and how new social conditions have influenced literary expression. The distinction…

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Pashto – Literary Criticism – Major Approaches to Literary Criticism

Major Approaches to Literary Criticism Introduction Literary criticism is not limited to one method of reading. Different approaches ask different questions about a literary work. Some focus on language and structure, others examine the author’s historical circumstances, social conditions, psychological dimensions, cultural identity or relationship with other texts. The choice of approach depends on the…

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Pashto – Literary Criticism – Literary Genres and Critical Terminology

Literary Genres and Critical Terminology Introduction Literature is expressed through different forms, each with its own structure, conventions and artistic possibilities. These forms are commonly described as literary genres. Understanding genres helps readers recognize how a literary work communicates meaning and helps critics select appropriate methods of analysis. Pashto literature includes a wide range of…

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MCQs – Contemporary Issues and Islam – Islam and Environmental Ethics

Islam and Environmental Ethics 1. Introduction Environmental ethics concerns the moral responsibilities of human beings toward the natural environment, including land, water, air, forests, animals and ecosystems. Contemporary environmental challenges include climate change, pollution, deforestation, biodiversity loss, water scarcity and unsustainable consumption. Islam provides an ethical framework for environmental responsibility. The Qur’an describes the natural…

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MCQs – Contemporary Issues and Islam – Islam and Interfaith Dialogue

Islam and Interfaith Dialogue 1. Introduction Interfaith dialogue refers to constructive communication, mutual understanding and cooperation among followers of different religions. It aims to reduce prejudice, address misunderstandings, promote peaceful coexistence and encourage cooperation on shared human concerns. Islam recognizes the existence of religious diversity and provides principles for engaging with people of different faiths….

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MCQs – Contemporary Issues and Islam – Islam and Modernity

Islam and Modernity 1. Introduction Modernity refers to the social, political, economic, cultural and intellectual transformations associated with modern societies. It is commonly linked with industrialization, scientific advancement, urbanization, constitutional government, mass education, individual rights, modern institutions and technological development. Islam and modernity are frequently discussed in relation to questions of religious identity, social change,…

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MCQs – Contemporary Issues and Islam – Islam and Science

Islam and Science 1. Introduction Science is the systematic study of the natural and physical world through observation, experimentation, reasoning and evidence. It has transformed human civilization through discoveries in medicine, agriculture, engineering, communication, energy and technology. Islam encourages the pursuit of knowledge and reflection upon the universe. The Qur’an repeatedly invites human beings to…

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MCQs – Contemporary Issues and Islam – Islam and Globalization

Islam and Globalization 1. Introduction Globalization refers to the growing interconnectedness of countries and societies through trade, investment, technology, communication, migration, culture, education and international institutions. It has transformed the movement of goods, capital, information, ideas and people across national boundaries. Islam is a universal religion whose message is not confined to a particular nation,…

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