Insurgency and Counterinsurgency 1. Introduction Insurgency is an organized challenge to an established political authority, usually involving armed resistance, political mobilization, and efforts to weaken or replace the government’s control. Counterinsurgency refers to the measures taken by a government and its partners to contain or defeat an insurgency and establish a sustainable political and security…
Grey-Zone Conflict 1. Introduction International competition does not always take the form of peace or open war. States may use coercive diplomacy, economic pressure, cyber operations, maritime encounters, political influence, legal claims, or other measures to advance their interests without initiating a clearly recognizable conventional war. This area of competition is commonly described as the…
Hybrid Warfare 1. Introduction Modern conflict increasingly involves more than conventional military force. States and non-state actors may combine military operations with cyber activity, disinformation, economic pressure, political influence, covert action, and the use of irregular armed groups. Such combinations are commonly discussed under the concept of hybrid warfare. The concept highlights the difficulty of…
Proxy War 1. Introduction A proxy war occurs when external powers pursue strategic objectives by supporting local or regional actors who fight on their behalf or in ways that advance their interests. Instead of relying exclusively on direct confrontation, a state may provide weapons, funding, intelligence, training, political backing, or other assistance to a partner…
Civil War 1. Introduction Civil war is one of the most destructive forms of armed conflict because it occurs within a state and often divides communities that share territory, history, economic relationships, and social institutions. Unlike a conventional war between two sovereign states, a civil war involves organized armed groups fighting within a country over…
Trade and Commerce: 50 MCQs 1 What is the Islamic ethical foundation of trade? (a) Deception (b) Honesty and fairness (c) Exploitation (d) None of these 2 Which Quranic chapter instructs believers to give full measure and weight with justice? (a) Al-Isra (b) Al-Fil (c) Al-Kawthar (d) None of these 3 What should a seller…
Riba: 50 MCQs 1 What does riba generally refer to in Islamic law? (a) Voluntary charity (b) Prohibited increase in transactions as defined by Islamic rules (c) Ordinary lawful employment (d) None of these 2 Which Quranic chapter contains major passages prohibiting riba? (a) Al-Baqarah (b) Al-Fil (c) Al-Kawthar (d) None of these 3 Which…
Zakat and Wealth Distribution: 50 MCQs 1 What is zakat? (a) A voluntary pilgrimage (b) An obligatory form of almsgiving under specified conditions (c) A type of commercial fraud (d) None of these 2 Which is one of the principal purposes of zakat? (a) To concentrate wealth among the wealthy (b) To eliminate all private…
Halal and Haram in Economic Life: 50 MCQs 1 What does halal mean? (a) Forbidden (b) Permissible under Islamic law (c) Doubtful in every case (d) None of these 2 What does haram mean? (a) Recommended (b) Optional (c) Prohibited under Islamic law (d) None of these 3 Which source is fundamental to determining halal…
Principles of Islamic Economics: 50 MCQs 1 What is a fundamental objective of the Islamic economic system? (a) Maximizing wealth without ethical limits (b) Promoting justice and welfare within Islamic principles (c) Abolishing all private property (d) None of these 2 Which concept refers to the idea that wealth ultimately belongs to Allah? (a) Ownership…
Values, Beliefs, Norms, Customs and Traditions Introduction Culture is maintained through ideas and practices that guide how people think, evaluate situations, and behave toward others. Values establish what people consider desirable, beliefs shape what they accept as true, norms define expected behaviour, customs organize recurring social practices, and traditions transmit cultural patterns across generations. These…
Material Culture and Non-Material Culture Introduction Culture includes both the physical objects people create and use and the intangible meanings, ideas, values, and rules that guide their lives. Sociologists distinguish these dimensions as material culture and non-material culture. Material culture includes buildings, clothing, tools, machines, books, vehicles, and digital devices. Non-material culture includes language, beliefs,…
Culture: Meaning, Elements and Characteristics Introduction Culture is one of the central concepts in sociology because it explains how people learn to live together, interpret the world, establish social expectations, and transmit knowledge from one generation to another. Language, religion, values, customs, food, clothing, technology, art, and moral principles are all aspects of culture. Culture…
Accommodation, Assimilation, Integration and Social Exclusion Introduction Societies contain people with different cultural backgrounds, languages, religions, ethnic identities, social positions, and ways of life. The relationships among these groups can take different forms. People may adjust their behaviour to live together, adopt aspects of another culture, participate in common institutions, or experience exclusion from social…
Social Interaction: Cooperation, Competition and Conflict Introduction Social interaction is the foundation of social life. Individuals and groups interact to achieve shared goals, pursue competing interests, resolve disagreements, and maintain relationships. These interactions shape social institutions, group structures, cultural practices, and patterns of social change. Three important forms of social interaction are cooperation, competition, and…
Development of Pashto Literature in Afghanistan and Pakistan | په افغانستان او پاکستان کې د پښتو ادب پرمختګ Introduction Pashto literature has developed across a broad geographical and cultural region that includes Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Pashto-speaking communities elsewhere in the world. Political boundaries have divided this region into different states, but the language’s literary traditions,…
Pashto Literary Institutions, Publishing and Journalism | پښتو ادبي بنسټونه، خپرندویي او ژورنالېزم Introduction Pashto literature has developed through the efforts of individual writers, poets, scholars, publishers, journalists, educational institutions, literary associations, and cultural organizations. While individual creativity remains central to literature, institutions and publishing networks have played a vital role in preserving classical works,…
Literary Movements and Intellectual Trends | ادبي غورځنګونه او فکري بهیرونه Introduction Pashto literature has developed through a continuous interaction between inherited literary traditions and changing intellectual, social, religious, and political circumstances. Literary movements and intellectual trends have influenced what writers choose to discuss, how they express ideas, and how readers interpret literary works. Some…
Pashto Literature in the Modern Period | په معاصره دوره کې پښتو ادب Introduction The modern period marks a major transformation in Pashto literature. While classical literature was strongly associated with established poetic forms, religious and ethical writing, and manuscript culture, modern Pashto literature expanded into new genres, institutions, political debates, and forms of public…
Pashto Literature in the Classical Period | په کلاسیکه دوره کې پښتو ادب Introduction The classical period occupies a foundational place in the history of Pashto literature. During this period, Pashto developed a substantial written literary tradition, producing religious and philosophical works, lyrical and mystical poetry, ethical reflections, political writings, and literary compositions that continue…