Space Militarization and Weaponization Introduction Outer space has become an increasingly important arena of international politics, national security, scientific research and economic activity. Satellites support communication, navigation, weather forecasting, banking, agriculture, disaster management and military operations. As states become more dependent on space-based infrastructure, protecting these systems—and preventing their use for hostile purposes—has become a…

Rise of European Great Powers Introduction The rise of European great powers was a central development in the formation of the modern international system. From the late medieval period through the eighteenth century, several European states expanded their military capabilities, strengthened their economies, consolidated political authority and competed for influence across the continent and beyond….

Peace of Westphalia Introduction The Peace of Westphalia refers to a series of agreements concluded in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years’ War in the Holy Roman Empire and helped bring an end to the wider conflict involving European powers. It is widely regarded as an important milestone in the history of diplomacy, sovereignty and…

Rise of the Modern European State System Introduction The modern European state system emerged gradually from the political, religious and social transformations of medieval and early modern Europe. It developed as territorial rulers consolidated authority, weakened competing sources of power, established more permanent administrative institutions and conducted diplomacy with other political entities. The state system…

Future of Nuclear Order Introduction The nuclear order is the collection of international rules, institutions, strategic relationships and political understandings that shape how states acquire, possess, control and seek to limit nuclear weapons. It includes nuclear deterrence, non-proliferation agreements, arms-control arrangements, disarmament commitments, safeguards and efforts to prevent nuclear terrorism. Since the atomic bombings of…