Table of Contents
Apostrophes and Quotation Marks
The apostrophe and quotation marks have important grammatical and punctuation functions.
Apostrophes
The apostrophe (') is primarily used for:
- possession
- contractions
- certain plurals of symbols or individual characters
Possession
For a singular noun, possession is normally marked with 's:
the student’s book
the company’s policy
For many plural nouns ending in s, only an apostrophe is added:
the students’ books
the teachers’ room
For irregular plurals, 's is normally used:
children’s books
men’s clothing
Singular Names Ending in S
Style conventions vary:
James’s book
Some styles may prefer:
James’ book
The important principle is to follow a consistent style.
Contractions
An apostrophe marks omitted letters:
do not → don’t
cannot → can’t
it is → it’s
they are → they’re
A frequent error is confusing it’s and its:
it’s = it is / it has
its = possessive determiner
Examples:
It’s raining.
The company changed its policy.
Apostrophes Do Not Normally Form Ordinary Plurals
Incorrect:
❌ apple’s
❌ book’s
❌ student’s
when simply referring to more than one.
Correct:
✓ apples
✓ books
✓ students
An apostrophe may be used in certain specialized cases, such as pluralizing individual letters:
Mind your p’s and q’s.
Style conventions vary for such cases.
Quotation Marks
Quotation marks are used to indicate direct speech or quoted material.
Examples:
She said, “I will return tomorrow.”
Quotation-mark conventions differ between British and American styles. Single quotation marks may be preferred in some British styles, while double quotation marks are common in American English.
Direct and Indirect Speech
Direct quotation:
He said, “I am tired.”
Reported speech:
He said that he was tired.
Quotation marks are normally unnecessary in indirect speech.
Quotations Within Quotations
When one quotation occurs inside another, different quotation marks may be used:
She said, “The teacher called it ‘an important discovery.’”
The exact convention varies by style.
Quotation Marks and Titles
Quotation marks may be used for certain shorter works, depending on style:
“The Road Not Taken”
Book and other major-work titles are often italicized instead.
Punctuation with Quotation Marks
The placement of punctuation varies between British and American conventions, especially with periods and commas.
The important principle is to follow the style system being used consistently.
Quotation Marks for Special Meaning
Quotation marks can sometimes signal:
- irony
- unusual usage
- skepticism
- a particular term
For example:
The project was a “success.”
Here the quotation marks may suggest that the writer questions whether it was truly successful.
Such use should be controlled because excessive quotation marks can create ambiguity.