Academic Vocabulary and Academic Style Academic English is the form of English commonly used in education, research, scholarship, and formal intellectual discussion. It is generally characterized by precision, clarity, appropriate formality, and careful presentation of ideas. Academic English is not simply “difficult English.” Good academic writing communicates complex ideas as clearly as possible. 1. What…

Coherence, Cohesion, Structure and Effective Style Effective writing is not simply a collection of grammatically correct sentences. Ideas must work together as a unified whole. Four closely related concepts are especially important: coherence cohesion structure style 1. Coherence Coherence refers to the logical connection and overall sense of a text. A coherent paragraph might move…

Essays, Summaries, Precis and Other Forms Writing takes many forms, and each form has its own purpose, structure, and conventions. A student or professional writer must understand not only how to write well but also how to adapt writing to the required form. 1. The Essay An essay is a structured piece of writing that…

Argumentative and Persuasive Writing Argumentative and persuasive writing attempts to influence how readers understand or respond to an issue. Although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, they can emphasize different aspects. Argumentative writing generally emphasizes reasoning and evidence. Persuasive writing may place greater emphasis on audience, values, emotion, and rhetorical techniques. Both require a clear…

Descriptive, Narrative and Expository Writing Different purposes require different approaches to writing. Three fundamental forms are descriptive, narrative, and expository writing. These forms can also be combined. 1. Descriptive Writing Descriptive writing creates a clear picture of a person, place, object, event, or experience. It answers questions such as: What does it look like? What…

Sentence and Paragraph Writing Writing begins with the sentence and develops through connected sentences into paragraphs and larger texts. Effective writing requires more than grammatical correctness. Ideas must be organized clearly so that readers can understand the intended meaning. 1. The Sentence as the Basic Unit of Writing A sentence normally expresses a complete thought…

Literary, Academic and Informational Text Analysis Different types of texts have different purposes, structures, and conventions. A good reader therefore adjusts the way a text is analyzed according to its genre and purpose. Three broad categories are especially important: literary, academic, and informational texts. 1. Literary Texts Literary texts are primarily concerned with imaginative, artistic,…

Critical Reading and Evaluation Reading critically means going beyond understanding what a writer says. A critical reader also examines whether the claims are reasonable, the evidence is sufficient, the reasoning is sound, and the language is being used fairly. Critical reading does not mean automatically rejecting a writer’s argument. It means evaluating it carefully. 1….

Inference, Context and Interpretation Reading comprehension often requires understanding information that is not stated directly. Readers use evidence from the text together with context and background knowledge to reach reasonable conclusions. This process is called inference. 1. What Is an Inference? An inference is a conclusion reached from available evidence rather than from a directly…

Main Ideas, Supporting Details and Organization Every well-structured text contains relationships among ideas. Understanding these relationships is essential for reading comprehension. The main idea tells us what a passage, paragraph, or section is primarily about. Supporting details provide information that explains, develops, proves, illustrates, or qualifies that main idea. 1. Topic and Main Idea The…

Reading Skills and Strategies Reading is more than recognizing words and understanding individual sentences. Effective reading involves understanding the writer’s message, identifying important information, recognizing relationships between ideas, making inferences, and evaluating what has been read. Good readers adjust their reading strategy according to the purpose, type, and difficulty of a text. 1. Reading for…