Glossaries Sociology

Hypotheses, Variables, Concepts and Operationalization Introduction Hypotheses, variables, concepts and operationalization are fundamental elements of sociological research. They help researchers transform broad social ideas into clearly defined questions, measurable indicators and testable propositions. Sociological concepts such as poverty, social class, political participation, social mobility, gender inequality and educational achievement are often abstract. Researchers must define…

Contemporary Integrative and Multidisciplinary Perspectives Introduction Contemporary sociology increasingly recognizes that social life cannot be adequately understood through a single theoretical perspective or academic discipline. Modern societies are shaped by interconnected economic, political, cultural, technological, environmental and psychological processes. Consequently, sociologists increasingly combine theoretical approaches and draw upon knowledge from other disciplines to develop more…

Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Research Introduction Research methodology provides the principles and procedures through which researchers investigate a particular subject. In sociology, the choice of methodology is important because social phenomena involve measurable patterns as well as meanings, experiences, beliefs and relationships. Three major methodological approaches are quantitative research, qualitative research and mixed-methods research. Quantitative…

Research Designs: Exploratory, Descriptive, Explanatory and Comparative Introduction A research design is the overall plan or framework that guides a research study. It explains how a researcher will investigate a research problem, collect relevant information, analyze evidence and answer research questions. In sociology, research designs help researchers study complex social phenomena in an organized and…

Social Research: Concepts, Objectives and Research Questions Introduction Social research is the systematic and organized study of human behaviour, social relationships, institutions, groups and societies. It seeks to understand how people interact, how social institutions function, why social problems emerge and how societies change over time. Sociology relies on social research to develop explanations based…

Critical Theory, Postmodernism and Postcolonial Sociology Introduction Critical theory, postmodernism and postcolonial sociology are influential approaches that examine power, domination, knowledge, inequality and the historical construction of social reality. These perspectives challenge conventional explanations of society by questioning established institutions, dominant ideologies, universal claims and unequal relationships between social groups. Critical theory investigates how economic,…

Feminist Sociology and Gender Perspectives Introduction Feminist sociology is a theoretical and analytical approach that examines gender relations, inequalities, power structures and the social position of women and men. It investigates how societies construct gender roles, distribute resources, organize institutions and maintain systems of privilege and disadvantage. Traditional sociological theories often concentrated on class, industrialization,…

Exchange Theory, Rational Choice and Network Perspectives Introduction Exchange theory, rational choice theory and social network perspectives are important approaches in contemporary sociology. They explain social relationships and collective behaviour through the exchange of resources, individual decision-making and patterns of social connections. Exchange theory examines how individuals engage in relationships involving rewards, costs, benefits and…

Phenomenology, Ethnomethodology and Social Constructionism Introduction Phenomenology, ethnomethodology and social constructionism are interpretive approaches that examine how individuals experience, understand and produce social reality. They challenge the assumption that society consists only of objective structures existing independently of human consciousness and interaction. These perspectives investigate how people interpret everyday experiences, develop shared understandings, follow taken-for-granted…

Symbolic Interactionism and Interpretive Sociology Introduction Symbolic interactionism and interpretive sociology are major sociological approaches that examine how individuals create, interpret and negotiate meaning through social interaction. Unlike macro-level perspectives that emphasize institutions, social structures, class relations and large-scale social processes, these approaches focus on everyday interactions, communication, symbols and the meanings people attach to…

Conflict Theory and Neo-Marxist Perspectives Introduction Conflict theory is a major sociological perspective that explains society through unequal power relations, competition over resources and struggles among individuals and social groups. Unlike functionalism, which emphasizes social order and institutional stability, conflict theory focuses on inequality, domination, exploitation and social transformation. The approach is strongly influenced by…

Functionalism, Structural Functionalism and Social Equilibrium Introduction Functionalism is a major theoretical perspective in sociology that explains society as a system of interconnected institutions, structures and social practices that perform functions necessary for maintaining social order and continuity. According to functionalist thinking, society consists of different parts, including family, education, religion, economy, government and law….

Georg Simmel and the Forms of Social Interaction Introduction Georg Simmel (1858–1918) was a German sociologist, philosopher and social theorist who made important contributions to the study of social interaction, social relationships, urban life, culture and modernity. He is regarded as one of the early pioneers of formal sociology. Simmel argued that society is not…

Max Weber: Social Action, Authority and Rationalization Introduction Max Weber (1864–1920) was a German sociologist, economist and political thinker whose work profoundly influenced modern sociology. He developed an interpretive approach to understanding society, emphasizing the meanings individuals attach to their actions and the ways these actions are shaped by social relationships, institutions and structures of…

Karl Marx: Class, Capitalism and Historical Materialism Introduction Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German philosopher, economist, historian and social theorist whose ideas profoundly influenced sociology, political economy and modern political thought. He developed a critical analysis of capitalism, arguing that economic organization shapes social relationships, political institutions and historical change. Marx viewed society as structured…

Émile Durkheim: Social Facts, Solidarity and Anomie Introduction Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) was a French sociologist widely regarded as one of the founding fathers of modern sociology. He played a central role in establishing sociology as an independent academic discipline with its own subject matter, concepts and scientific methods. Durkheim argued that society is more than…

Auguste Comte, Positivism and the Founding of Sociology Introduction Auguste Comte (1798–1857) was a French philosopher widely regarded as one of the principal founders of sociology. He introduced the term sociology in the nineteenth century and sought to establish the systematic scientific study of society. Comte believed that society could be studied through methods based…

Herbert Spencer and Social Evolutionism Introduction Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) was a British philosopher and sociologist who made an important contribution to the development of classical sociological theory. He applied the principles of evolution to the study of society, arguing that human societies gradually develop from simple and relatively undifferentiated forms into more complex and differentiated…

Meritocracy, Equality of Opportunity and Affirmative Action Introduction Meritocracy, equality of opportunity and affirmative action are important concepts in the sociological study of social mobility, fairness and inequality. They concern how individuals gain access to education, employment, public office and other valued social positions. Meritocracy is the principle that positions and rewards should be allocated…

Elite Formation, Social Closure and Privilege Introduction Elite formation, social closure and privilege are important concepts in the sociological study of power, inequality and social stratification. They explain how certain individuals and groups acquire disproportionate access to wealth, authority, prestige, opportunities and influential positions, and how these advantages may be maintained over time. Elites are…