Glossaries Sociology

Intersectionality and Multiple Disadvantages Introduction Intersectionality is a sociological and interdisciplinary framework for understanding how different dimensions of social identity and systems of inequality interact to shape people’s experiences, opportunities and life chances. Individuals occupy multiple social positions simultaneously. These may include gender, social class, ethnicity, race, religion, disability, age, nationality, sexuality, and geographical location….

Ethnic, Racial and Religious Inequality Introduction Ethnic, racial and religious inequality refers to unequal access to rights, resources, opportunities, recognition and social participation associated with ethnicity, racial classification or religious identity. These forms of inequality may influence education, employment, housing, healthcare, political representation, legal protection and access to public institutions. Ethnicity generally concerns a shared…

Gender Inequality and Patriarchy Introduction Gender inequality refers to unequal opportunities, rights, resources, responsibilities, and social treatment associated with gender. It may occur in families, education, employment, politics, healthcare, property ownership, and public life. Patriarchy is a social system in which men, as a group, hold disproportionate authority, power, or control within important social institutions….

Power, Prestige and Social Status Introduction Power, prestige, and social status are closely related concepts that help explain how societies organize relationships, distribute influence, and rank individuals and groups. They are important dimensions of social stratification because social position depends not only on economic resources but also on the capacity to influence others and the…

Wealth, Income, Property and Economic Inequality Introduction Economic inequality refers to the unequal distribution of income, wealth, property, and other material resources among individuals, households, and social groups. It is a major dimension of social stratification because access to economic resources influences people’s living standards, educational opportunities, healthcare, political influence, social status, and life chances….

Poverty, Deprivation and Social Exclusion Introduction Poverty, deprivation and social exclusion are closely related concepts used to understand disadvantage and inequality. Poverty generally refers to insufficient resources to meet essential needs or to participate adequately in society. Deprivation refers to the lack of resources, conditions or opportunities considered necessary for an acceptable standard of living….

Social Mobility: Vertical, Horizontal, Intergenerational and Intragenerational Introduction Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals, families or groups from one social position to another within a society’s stratification system. Such movement may involve changes in income, occupation, educational attainment, wealth, prestige or class position. Social mobility is important in sociology because it helps researchers…

Caste, Estate and Class Systems Introduction Caste, estate and class systems are major forms of social stratification. Each organizes social positions and distributes resources, opportunities, prestige and power, but they differ in the principles through which inequality is structured and maintained. A caste system traditionally assigns social position by birth and restricts movement between ranked…

Social Class, Class Structure and Class Consciousness Introduction Social class is a major concept in sociology used to explain economic inequality, differences in life chances and the distribution of power within society. It refers broadly to groups of people who occupy similar positions in the economic and social structure, particularly in relation to income, wealth,…

Social Stratification: Meaning, Forms and Dimensions Introduction Social stratification refers to the structured ranking of individuals and groups in a society into unequal social positions. These positions differ in access to wealth, income, power, prestige, education, healthcare, opportunities and other valued resources. Stratification is a central concept in sociology because it explains how inequality becomes…

Social Networks, Social Organization and Institutional Structure Introduction Society is organized through relationships, groups, institutions and systems of authority. Individuals do not live in isolation; they interact with family members, friends, colleagues, neighbours, professional contacts and public organizations. These relationships create networks through which information, resources, opportunities and social expectations circulate. Sociologists examine these patterns…

Social Norms, Social Expectations and Social Obligations Introduction Social life depends on shared rules, expectations and responsibilities that guide human behaviour. People learn how to interact with family members, colleagues, neighbours, public officials and strangers through socially established standards of conduct. These standards help coordinate relationships, maintain social order and define what communities consider appropriate…

Social Position, Social Prestige and Social Recognition Introduction Individuals occupy different positions within society, and these positions influence their relationships, opportunities, responsibilities and public identities. Some positions carry considerable authority and prestige, while others receive limited recognition despite their importance to society. Sociologists examine these differences through the concepts of social position, social prestige and…

Role Conflict, Role Strain and Role Exit Introduction Social roles connect social positions with expected patterns of behaviour. Individuals occupy multiple statuses and perform different roles within families, workplaces, educational institutions and communities. Although these roles help organize social life, their expectations do not always fit together. Individuals may face incompatible demands, excessive responsibilities or…

Structural Constraints, Agency and Human Action Introduction Human behaviour is shaped by both individual choices and the social conditions in which people live. Individuals make decisions, pursue goals and attempt to change their circumstances, but their actions are influenced by economic resources, cultural expectations, institutional rules, social relationships and unequal distributions of power. Sociologists use…

Social Status: Ascribed, Achieved and Master Status Introduction Social status refers to a socially recognized position occupied by an individual within a group or society. Every person occupies multiple statuses, such as child, parent, student, teacher, employee, citizen or community member. These positions influence how others perceive the individual, what they expect from them and…

Social Roles, Role Expectations and Role Performance Introduction Social roles are an essential component of social structure because they connect recognized social positions with expected patterns of behaviour. Every status carries expectations concerning how an individual should act, interact with others and fulfil responsibilities. A teacher is expected to teach, a parent to care for…

Social Structure and Structural Relationships Introduction Social structure refers to the relatively enduring patterns of social relationships, institutions, statuses, roles and norms through which society is organized. It provides an arrangement within which individuals interact, perform responsibilities, access resources and participate in collective life. Society is not simply a collection of unrelated individuals. People occupy…

Socialization in Digital and Virtual Environments Introduction Socialization is the process through which individuals learn the norms, values, knowledge, skills and patterns of behaviour required for participation in society. Traditionally, families, schools, religious institutions, peer groups and workplaces have been regarded as major agents of socialization. Digital technologies have expanded this process by creating online…

Life Course, Childhood, Adulthood and Ageing Introduction The life course refers to the sequence of socially recognized stages, transitions and experiences through which individuals pass from birth to death. Although biological development influences human life, the meanings, expectations and opportunities associated with different ages are strongly shaped by society. Childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age…