Pakistan-India Relations

1 Introduction

Pakistan-India relations are among the most consequential and complex bilateral relationships in South Asia. The two countries emerged as independent states from the partition of British India in 1947, sharing a long common history, geographical proximity, cultural connections and extensive economic and human linkages.

At the same time, the relationship has been dominated by the unresolved Jammu and Kashmir dispute, repeated wars and military crises, cross-border terrorism allegations, territorial disputes, water issues, nuclear deterrence and competing regional strategies.

Pakistan and India are not merely neighbouring states. They are nuclear-armed neighbours whose decisions directly affect the security, stability and economic prospects of South Asia.

The relationship therefore has to be understood through several interconnected dimensions: Partition, Kashmir, security, water, terrorism, nuclear deterrence, diplomacy, trade, people-to-people relations and regional geopolitics.

2 Historical Background

Before 1947, the territories that became Pakistan and India formed part of British India.

The end of British colonial rule resulted in the creation of two independent dominions, Pakistan and India, in August 1947.

Partition produced one of the largest population movements in modern history. Millions of Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs crossed the newly created borders, while communal violence caused enormous loss of life and property.

The traumatic experience of Partition profoundly influenced the political identities and security perceptions of both states.

The relationship therefore began not simply as a conventional neighbourly relationship but amid mass migration, communal violence, territorial disputes and competing national narratives.

3 Establishment of Diplomatic Relations

Pakistan and India established diplomatic relations after independence.

High Commissioners were appointed in their respective capitals, creating the formal framework for bilateral engagement.

Despite repeated wars and crises, diplomatic relations have generally remained an important mechanism for communication.

Pakistan’s Foreign Ministry describes the relationship as rooted in the shared history of British India and the events surrounding Partition in 1947. It also notes that the two countries have concluded numerous agreements covering areas including trade, water, travel and religious pilgrimage. (Ministry of Foreign Affairs)

4 Jammu and Kashmir: The Core Dispute

The Jammu and Kashmir dispute is the central political and strategic issue in Pakistan-India relations.

At the time of Partition, princely states were given the option of joining India or Pakistan, subject to the historical constitutional arrangements of the period.

The ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, Maharaja Hari Singh, initially sought to remain independent.

The situation changed dramatically in late 1947 amid armed conflict and political upheaval, followed by the Maharaja’s accession to India and the intervention of Indian forces.

War subsequently broke out between India and Pakistan.

The territory became divided between areas administered by India and Pakistan, while the broader question of its political future remained unresolved.

Pakistan maintains that Kashmir is a disputed territory and emphasizes the right of the Kashmiri people to self-determination under relevant United Nations Security Council resolutions.

India maintains that Jammu and Kashmir is an integral part of India and rejects Pakistan’s position.

This fundamental disagreement remains at the heart of bilateral tensions.

5 United Nations and Kashmir

The Kashmir dispute reached the United Nations soon after the first India-Pakistan war.

The UN Security Council adopted a series of resolutions concerning Jammu and Kashmir.

The issue of a plebiscite became an important part of the international discussion surrounding the dispute.

Pakistan continues to emphasize the relevance of UN Security Council resolutions and the principle of self-determination.

India’s position has evolved toward emphasizing bilateral mechanisms, particularly the Simla Agreement, and rejecting internationalization of the Kashmir issue.

Thus, the Kashmir dispute involves competing interpretations of international commitments, bilateral agreements, sovereignty and self-determination.

6 The First India-Pakistan War, 1947-48

The first India-Pakistan war began soon after Partition over Jammu and Kashmir.

The conflict resulted in the division of the territory between areas administered by India and Pakistan.

A UN-mediated ceasefire came into effect on 1 January 1949.

The ceasefire line was subsequently established and later transformed into the Line of Control (LoC) under the Simla Agreement.

The first war established Kashmir as the central security issue in bilateral relations.

7 The 1965 War

The second major India-Pakistan war occurred in 1965.

The conflict involved fighting in both Kashmir and sectors along the international border.

After intense military operations, a ceasefire was achieved with international diplomatic involvement.

The Tashkent Declaration of January 1966, facilitated by the Soviet Union, provided a framework for withdrawal and restoration of relations.

The war demonstrated that unresolved territorial disputes could escalate into large-scale conventional conflict.

8 The 1971 War and Creation of Bangladesh

The 1971 conflict was fundamentally different from the earlier Kashmir-centred wars.

Political conflict in Pakistan’s eastern wing, military operations, refugee flows into India and India’s eventual military intervention culminated in war.

The conflict resulted in the creation of Bangladesh and the separation of East Pakistan from Pakistan.

The war profoundly changed the strategic balance in South Asia.

It also produced a new framework for Pakistan-India relations through the Simla Agreement of 1972.

9 The Simla Agreement

The Simla Agreement, signed on 2 July 1972 by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, remains one of the most important bilateral agreements between Pakistan and India.

The agreement committed both countries to:

• Respect the principles of the UN Charter
• Resolve differences through peaceful means
• Pursue bilateral negotiations or other mutually agreed peaceful means
• Respect territorial integrity and sovereignty
• Avoid unilateral alteration of the situation
• Respect the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir

The agreement also sought to normalize relations through restoration of communications, travel and cultural exchanges. (Ministry of External Affairs)

The Simla framework subsequently became central to India’s argument for resolving bilateral disputes through bilateral mechanisms.

Pakistan, while recognizing the importance of the agreement, continues to maintain that the Kashmir dispute also has an international dimension reflected in relevant UN resolutions.

10 The Line of Control

The Line of Control, or LoC, separates the areas of Jammu and Kashmir administered by India and Pakistan.

It emerged from the ceasefire line established after the 1947-48 war and was redesignated as the LoC under the Simla Agreement.

The LoC is not recognized by either side as an international border.

Nevertheless, both sides have committed under the Simla framework to respect it and refrain from attempting to alter it unilaterally.

The LoC remains heavily militarized and has periodically witnessed ceasefire violations and military confrontations.

11 Siachen Glacier

The Siachen Glacier is another major territorial dispute.

Located in the eastern Karakoram, Siachen is strategically significant because of its proximity to the boundaries of Pakistan, India and China.

Indian and Pakistani forces have occupied positions in the region since 1984.

The area is one of the world’s highest battlefields.

The dispute is strategically important but also extremely costly because of the extreme altitude, severe weather and logistical requirements.

Both countries have periodically discussed demilitarization, but no permanent settlement has been reached.

12 Sir Creek Dispute

The Sir Creek dispute concerns a maritime boundary in the Rann of Kutch between Sindh and Gujarat.

The creek itself is a tidal estuary, and disagreement over the precise boundary affects the maritime boundary extending into the Arabian Sea.

The issue has implications for:

• Maritime jurisdiction
• Fishing rights
• Offshore resources
• Security
• Exclusive Economic Zones

Sir Creek is generally regarded as a technically narrower dispute than Kashmir, but its resolution could contribute to confidence-building between the two countries.

13 Water Dispute

Water is among the most strategically important aspects of Pakistan-India relations.

Pakistan is heavily dependent on the Indus River system for agriculture, drinking water and hydropower.

Most of the major rivers of the Indus Basin originate in or pass through territory controlled by India before entering Pakistan.

This creates a classic upstream-downstream relationship.

The potential for water conflict led to extensive negotiations and ultimately to the Indus Waters Treaty of 1960.

14 Indus Waters Treaty

The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) was signed on 19 September 1960 with the assistance of the World Bank.

The treaty allocated the waters of the Indus river system between India and Pakistan.

Broadly:

Eastern Rivers: Ravi, Beas and Sutlej were allocated for India’s unrestricted use, subject to treaty provisions.

Western Rivers: Indus, Jhelum and Chenab were allocated primarily for Pakistan, while India retained specified rights for uses permitted under the treaty.

The treaty also established mechanisms for cooperation and dispute resolution. (Ministry of External Affairs)

The treaty survived several wars and periods of severe political tension and became one of the most significant examples of institutionalized water cooperation between rival states.

15 Indus Waters Treaty and Contemporary Tensions

Water has become increasingly politicized in the bilateral relationship.

India announced in April 2025 that it would place the Indus Waters Treaty in abeyance following the Pahalgam attack.

Pakistan rejected this position and maintains that the treaty is a binding international agreement containing no provision for unilateral suspension.

Pakistan continues to pursue its position through the treaty’s institutional mechanisms and international legal forums. (Ministry of Foreign Affairs)

In 2026, Pakistan continued to emphasize that the treaty remains legally binding and that disputes concerning Indian hydroelectric projects should be handled through the mechanisms established under the treaty. (Ministry of Foreign Affairs)

For Pakistan, water security is an existential national interest because of the country’s dependence on the Indus Basin irrigation system.

16 Terrorism and Security

Terrorism has become one of the most important obstacles to normal Pakistan-India relations.

India’s official position identifies terrorism emanating from across the border as a core concern in its relationship with Pakistan. (Ministry of External Affairs)

Pakistan, meanwhile, has repeatedly accused India of supporting or facilitating terrorism and subversion inside Pakistan.

The two countries therefore have fundamentally different narratives concerning responsibility for militant violence.

Major terrorist attacks have repeatedly disrupted diplomatic engagement and generated military crises.

The result is a security dilemma in which each side’s security policies are often viewed by the other as evidence of hostile intentions.

17 Mumbai Attacks and Their Impact

The November 2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks were a major turning point.

The attacks killed more than 160 people and severely damaged the bilateral peace process.

India attributed responsibility to Pakistan-based militants and demanded action against those responsible.

Pakistan condemned terrorism and subsequently took legal and investigative measures concerning alleged perpetrators.

The attacks contributed to a prolonged deterioration in bilateral trust.

They also demonstrated how a non-state terrorist attack could have consequences extending into interstate diplomacy and regional security.

18 Pulwama and the 2019 Crisis

The February 2019 Pulwama suicide bombing in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir killed Indian security personnel.

India blamed Pakistan-based militant elements and subsequently conducted an airstrike at Balakot in Pakistan on 26 February 2019.

Pakistan responded with air operations the following day, resulting in a major military confrontation.

The crisis demonstrated the dangers of escalation between two nuclear-armed states.

It also reinforced the importance of crisis communication and deterrence.

19 August 2019 and Jammu and Kashmir

On 5 August 2019, India revoked the special constitutional status previously associated with Jammu and Kashmir and reorganized the former state into two Union Territories.

Pakistan strongly rejected the move and downgraded diplomatic relations.

Pakistan regards India’s actions as unilateral and contrary to the disputed status of Jammu and Kashmir.

India maintains that the changes concern its internal constitutional and administrative arrangements.

The 2019 developments significantly reduced prospects for conventional bilateral dialogue.

20 Nuclearization of South Asia

Pakistan and India became overtly nuclear-armed states following their nuclear tests in May 1998.

India conducted a series of nuclear tests on 11 and 13 May 1998.

Pakistan conducted nuclear tests on 28 and 30 May 1998.

The nuclearization of the two countries transformed the strategic environment.

Nuclear weapons created a powerful deterrent against full-scale war but did not eliminate the possibility of conflict.

Instead, the relationship became characterized by a combination of:

Nuclear deterrence + conventional military competition + limited conflict + crisis escalation risks.

21 Nuclear Deterrence

Nuclear deterrence has fundamentally changed the strategic logic of Pakistan-India relations.

Both countries understand that a major conventional war carries the risk of escalation to the nuclear level.

This creates what analysts often describe as a stability-instability paradox.

Strategic nuclear deterrence may reduce the likelihood of all-out war while simultaneously creating space for lower-level military confrontation, terrorism, proxy conflict or limited conventional operations.

Therefore, nuclear weapons have reduced some forms of war while increasing the importance of crisis management.

22 Military Balance

Pakistan and India maintain large military establishments.

India possesses greater overall economic and military resources, while Pakistan has developed strategic capabilities designed to maintain deterrence and offset India’s conventional advantages.

The military competition involves:

• Nuclear weapons
• Ballistic and cruise missiles
• Air power
• Naval capabilities
• Conventional forces
• Intelligence capabilities
• Cyber and information capabilities

The arms competition places significant economic burdens on both countries and diverts resources from development priorities.

23 Confidence-Building Measures

Both countries have periodically introduced confidence-building measures, or CBMs, to reduce the risk of accidental or unintended conflict.

Examples include:

• Military hotlines
• Advance notification of certain military exercises
• Agreements concerning nuclear installations
• Communication mechanisms
• Ceasefire arrangements
• Cross-border religious pilgrimages

These mechanisms are particularly important because misunderstandings between nuclear-armed states can have disproportionate consequences.

24 The 2003 Ceasefire and LoC Stability

The 2003 ceasefire understanding significantly reduced violence along the Line of Control for many years, although violations continued.

A renewed ceasefire understanding in February 2021 contributed to a substantial reduction in cross-LoC firing.

Such arrangements demonstrate that even when major political disputes remain unresolved, limited cooperation can reduce immediate security risks.

The lesson is important:

Conflict resolution and conflict management are not the same thing.

Even without resolving Kashmir, mechanisms can reduce violence and protect civilian populations.

25 Composite Dialogue

Pakistan and India developed a structured framework known as the Composite Dialogue to address multiple disputes simultaneously.

Its agenda included:

1. Peace and security
2. Jammu and Kashmir
3. Siachen
4. Sir Creek
5. Wullar Barrage/Tulbul Navigation Project
6. Economic and commercial cooperation
7. Counterterrorism and narcotics control
8. Humanitarian and people-to-people issues

Pakistan’s Foreign Ministry states that the last round of the Composite Dialogue was held in 2012, while a later attempt to revive dialogue in 2015 did not develop into sustained negotiations. (Ministry of Foreign Affairs)

The framework remains important as a model for comprehensive bilateral engagement.

26 Trade and Economic Relations

Pakistan and India possess enormous potential for economic cooperation because of geographical proximity.

A peaceful economic relationship could reduce transportation costs and facilitate:

• Agricultural trade
• Textiles
• Pharmaceuticals
• Energy cooperation
• Services
• Investment
• Tourism
• Regional supply chains

However, political tensions have kept bilateral trade far below its potential.

Restrictions, tariffs, diplomatic crises and security concerns have repeatedly interrupted commercial relations.

27 Regional Economic Potential

The economic significance of Pakistan-India relations extends beyond bilateral trade.

A more open relationship could connect:

Central Asia → Pakistan → India → Indian Ocean

It could also strengthen South Asian regional integration.

Improved connectivity could reduce transport costs, expand markets and encourage investment.

Political conflict therefore carries a significant opportunity cost.

28 SAARC and Regional Cooperation

Pakistan and India are the two largest members of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).

The rivalry between the two countries has repeatedly affected the functioning of SAARC.

The postponement of the 2016 SAARC summit following tensions between India and Pakistan illustrates how bilateral conflict can paralyze wider regional institutions.

This has broader consequences because South Asia remains one of the least economically integrated regions in the world.

29 People-to-People Relations

Despite political hostility, India and Pakistan share substantial cultural connections.

Common elements include:

• Languages
• Cuisine
• Music
• Literature
• Film
• Sports
• Family connections
• Religious traditions
• Historical heritage

Partition divided many families and communities.

Religious pilgrimage remains one of the areas where humanitarian and cultural engagement has continued despite political tensions.

The Kartarpur Corridor, opened in 2019, became a significant example of limited bilateral cooperation concerning religious pilgrimage.

30 Humanitarian Issues

Humanitarian matters frequently arise from the broader political conflict.

These include:

• Fishermen arrested for crossing maritime boundaries
• Prisoners
• Missing persons
• Family reunification
• Religious pilgrims
• Visa restrictions

Because the maritime boundary is not always obvious to fishing communities, fishermen from both countries are periodically arrested after unintentionally crossing into the other’s waters.

Humanitarian mechanisms are therefore important confidence-building tools.

31 Kashmir as a Human Rights Issue

Kashmir is not only a territorial and strategic dispute but also a human rights and political issue.

Pakistan highlights allegations of human rights violations in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir and calls for international attention to the issue.

India rejects Pakistan’s characterization and maintains that its actions are aimed at countering terrorism and maintaining security.

For objective academic analysis, students should distinguish between:

territorial claims, security concerns, human rights allegations and verified evidence.

32 The Role of China

China is an important factor in Pakistan-India strategic relations.

China and Pakistan maintain close strategic and economic relations, including cooperation under the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor.

India, meanwhile, has a complex strategic relationship with China involving territorial disputes, economic competition and regional rivalry.

Pakistan-India tensions therefore intersect with broader China-India strategic competition.

This creates a triangular strategic environment:

Pakistan ↔ India ↔ China

The China factor increases the geopolitical significance of Pakistan-India relations beyond South Asia.

33 Afghanistan and Pakistan-India Relations

Afghanistan has historically been another important dimension of Pakistan-India strategic competition.

India has maintained extensive diplomatic, development and economic engagement with Afghanistan.

Pakistan has traditionally viewed Afghanistan through the lens of its western security environment.

Instability in Afghanistan can therefore influence Pakistan’s strategic calculations concerning India.

However, Afghanistan increasingly pursues diversified relationships with Pakistan, India, China, Iran, Russia and Central Asian states.

34 The 2025 India-Pakistan Crisis

The April-May 2025 crisis marked one of the most serious recent escalations.

Following the 22 April 2025 Pahalgam attack, India accused Pakistan of involvement, while Pakistan rejected the allegation and called for an independent investigation.

India subsequently announced punitive measures and, during the night of 6-7 May, conducted strikes inside Pakistan and Azad Jammu and Kashmir.

Pakistan responded with military action on 10 May under Operation Bunyan-um-Marsoos.

A ceasefire was reached on 10 May following diplomatic engagement involving several countries.

The crisis demonstrated that the combination of terrorism allegations, conventional military capabilities and nuclear deterrence continues to make South Asia exceptionally sensitive to rapid escalation. Pakistan’s official account describes the episode as Indian aggression and emphasizes Pakistan’s right of self-defence. (Ministry of Foreign Affairs)

35 Current State of Relations

As of 2026, Pakistan-India relations remain deeply strained.

The principal unresolved issues include:

• Jammu and Kashmir
• Water
• Terrorism
• Cross-border security
• Military tensions
• Trade restrictions
• Diplomatic disengagement
• Visa and travel restrictions
• Sir Creek
• Siachen

At the same time, institutional mechanisms such as the Indus Waters Treaty, diplomatic channels, religious pilgrimage arrangements and military communication mechanisms remain important because they provide limited avenues for managing tensions.

The key challenge is therefore not merely achieving a comprehensive settlement but preventing disagreement from escalating into military conflict.

36 Key Takeaways for Exams

1. Pakistan and India emerged as independent states from the partition of British India in 1947.
2. Partition produced massive population movements and communal violence.
3. Pakistan-India relations have been dominated by the unresolved Jammu and Kashmir dispute.
4. The first India-Pakistan war occurred in 1947-48 over Jammu and Kashmir.
5. A UN-mediated ceasefire came into effect on 1 January 1949.
6. The Kashmir ceasefire line was later redesignated as the Line of Control under the Simla Agreement.
7. The 1965 war was the second major India-Pakistan war.
8. The Tashkent Declaration of 1966 followed the 1965 war.
9. The 1971 war resulted in the creation of Bangladesh and fundamentally altered the regional balance.
10. The Simla Agreement was signed on 2 July 1972 by Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.
11. The Simla Agreement emphasizes peaceful settlement and bilateral negotiations.
12. Pakistan continues to regard Jammu and Kashmir as an internationally recognized dispute.
13. India maintains that Jammu and Kashmir is an integral part of India.
14. Siachen is a major territorial and military dispute in the Karakoram.
15. Sir Creek is a maritime boundary dispute between Pakistan and India.
16. The Indus Waters Treaty was signed in 1960 with World Bank assistance.
17. The treaty allocated the Eastern Rivers primarily to India and the Western Rivers primarily to Pakistan, subject to specified provisions.
18. The Indus Waters Treaty survived wars and prolonged political tensions for decades.
19. Water security is a vital national interest for Pakistan because of its dependence on the Indus Basin.
20. Terrorism has become one of the principal obstacles to bilateral dialogue.
21. The 2008 Mumbai attacks severely damaged the peace process.
22. The 2019 Pulwama-Balakot crisis demonstrated the dangers of escalation between nuclear-armed neighbours.
23. India revoked the special constitutional status of Jammu and Kashmir on 5 August 2019.
24. Pakistan strongly rejected India’s 2019 constitutional and administrative changes concerning Jammu and Kashmir.
25. Pakistan and India conducted nuclear tests in May 1998.
26. Nuclear deterrence has reduced the likelihood of full-scale war but has not eliminated the possibility of limited conflict.
27. The security relationship illustrates the stability-instability paradox.
28. Confidence-building measures are essential for preventing accidental or unintended escalation.
29. The Composite Dialogue attempted to address security, Kashmir, Siachen, Sir Creek, water, trade and humanitarian issues through a structured framework.
30. Pakistan and India possess substantial unrealized potential for bilateral trade and regional economic integration.
31. Pakistan and India are the two largest members of SAARC, and their rivalry has affected regional cooperation.
32. People-to-people links remain strong despite political tensions because of shared language, culture, history and family connections.
33. China is an important factor in Pakistan-India strategic relations and broader South Asian geopolitics.
34. Afghanistan also influences the strategic calculations of Pakistan and India.
35. The 2025 crisis demonstrated that terrorism allegations can rapidly escalate into interstate military confrontation.
36. Sustainable peace requires a combination of conflict management, meaningful dialogue, respect for agreements, economic cooperation, confidence-building and progress toward resolution of outstanding disputes.

Conclusion

Pakistan-India relations are characterized by a striking combination of geographical proximity, historical connections, strategic rivalry and nuclear deterrence.

The Kashmir dispute remains the central political issue, while terrorism, water, territorial disputes, military competition and regional geopolitics repeatedly complicate bilateral relations.

Three major wars, numerous military crises and decades of diplomatic confrontation have demonstrated the dangers of unresolved disputes between two nuclear-armed neighbours.

Yet the relationship is not exclusively one of confrontation. The Indus Waters Treaty, the Simla Agreement, ceasefire arrangements, diplomatic channels, religious pilgrimage mechanisms and humanitarian contacts demonstrate that limited cooperation is possible even in periods of intense rivalry.

The fundamental challenge is to move from a relationship dominated by crisis management toward one based on institutionalized dialogue and predictable rules.

For Pakistan, the strategic priorities remain the peaceful resolution of the Jammu and Kashmir dispute, protection of water rights, national security, regional stability and preservation of strategic deterrence.

For South Asia as a whole, improved Pakistan-India relations could unlock enormous economic potential by increasing trade, connectivity, investment and regional integration.

Ultimately, lasting peace will require both countries to recognize a fundamental reality: geography makes permanent separation impossible, while nuclear weapons make permanent confrontation exceptionally dangerous. The long-term interests of both states therefore favour a relationship in which disputes are managed peacefully, agreements are respected and economic and human connections are gradually expanded.