Road to the Second World War

Introduction

The Second World War did not emerge from a single event. It resulted from a series of political, economic, diplomatic, and military developments that progressively destroyed the international order established after the First World War.

The Treaty of Versailles, the Great Depression, the rise of aggressive authoritarian regimes, the failure of collective security, and the expansionist policies of Germany, Italy, and Japan all contributed to the growing international crisis.

During the 1930s, a succession of international confrontations revealed the inability of the major powers to prevent aggression. Germany rearmed, Japan occupied Manchuria, Italy conquered Ethiopia, and Germany expanded into Austria and Czechoslovakia.

The final diplomatic crisis concerned Poland. After Germany signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union in August 1939, Hitler invaded Poland on 1 September. Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later.

This sequence of developments marked the beginning of the Second World War in Europe.

1. The Post-First World War Settlement

The First World War ended in 1918, followed by peace treaties that reshaped the political map of Europe and the Middle East.

The Treaty of Versailles of 1919 imposed territorial, military, and financial restrictions on Germany. Other peace settlements reorganised the territories of the former Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires.

The new international order was intended to provide stability, national self-determination, and collective security.

However, the settlement created grievances among several states. Germany rejected the restrictions imposed upon it, Italy felt inadequately rewarded for its wartime contribution, and Japan sought greater recognition and influence in Asia.

These unresolved grievances contributed to instability during the interwar period.

2. Weaknesses of the League of Nations

The League of Nations was established to prevent war through collective security, disarmament, and peaceful dispute settlement.

However, the League lacked independent military capabilities and depended on the cooperation of its members.

Its authority was undermined by:

• The absence of the United States.
• The withdrawal or changing participation of major powers.
• The unanimity requirement in important decisions.
• Conflicting national interests.
• Incomplete economic sanctions.
• The unwillingness of major powers to use force against aggressors.

The League’s failure to stop Japanese aggression in Manchuria and Italian aggression in Ethiopia demonstrated that international agreements could be violated without effective consequences.

3. The Great Depression

The Great Depression began in 1929 and spread internationally during the early 1930s.

The economic crisis caused unemployment, poverty, industrial decline, financial instability, and political unrest.

It weakened democratic governments and strengthened extremist political movements.

In Germany, economic hardship contributed to the growing popularity of the Nazi Party. Hitler promised national revival, employment, rearmament, and the rejection of the Treaty of Versailles.

Economic nationalism and protectionism also increased international tensions as states competed for markets, resources, and economic security.

The Great Depression therefore contributed to the political environment in which aggressive nationalism and authoritarianism expanded.

4. Rise of Aggressive Authoritarian Powers

The interwar period witnessed the emergence or consolidation of authoritarian regimes pursuing expansionist foreign policies.

4.1 Nazi Germany

Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933 and established a dictatorship.

Nazi foreign policy sought to overturn the Treaty of Versailles, unite ethnic Germans, acquire additional territory, and establish German dominance in Europe.

The regime pursued rapid rearmament and increasingly aggressive diplomatic and military actions.

4.2 Fascist Italy

Mussolini sought to restore Italy’s international prestige and establish a new empire.

The invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 and occupation of Albania in 1939 demonstrated Italy’s expansionist ambitions.

4.3 Militarist Japan

Japanese military leaders pursued territorial expansion in East Asia.

The occupation of Manchuria in 1931 and the invasion of China in 1937 undermined regional peace and weakened international security.

These three powers challenged the existing international order through military expansion and the use of force.

5. Japanese Expansion in Asia

Japan’s occupation of Manchuria in 1931 was one of the first major acts of aggression during the interwar period.

Japan established Manchukuo in 1932 and withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933 after the League rejected its claims.

In July 1937, a clash near the Marco Polo Bridge escalated into full-scale war between Japan and China.

Japanese forces occupied large parts of China and committed extensive atrocities, including the Nanjing Massacre.

Japan’s expansion demonstrated the weakness of international institutions and created a major conflict in East Asia before the European war began.

6. Italian Aggression in Ethiopia

In October 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia.

The League of Nations condemned the aggression and imposed economic sanctions, but these measures were inadequate.

Italy conquered Ethiopia in 1936 and established Italian East Africa.

The failure to prevent the conquest weakened the League and encouraged aggressive powers to believe that territorial expansion could succeed.

The crisis also contributed to the deterioration of relations between Italy and the Western democracies, pushing Mussolini closer to Hitler.

7. German Rearmament

Hitler openly rejected the military restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles.

In March 1935, Germany announced compulsory military service and the expansion of its armed forces. It also publicly established the Luftwaffe.

The Anglo-German Naval Agreement of June 1935 permitted Germany to expand its navy beyond the limits imposed by Versailles.

In March 1936, German troops remilitarised the Rhineland.

Britain and France did not take effective action to reverse these developments.

German rearmament transformed the European balance of power and gave Hitler the military capabilities needed for territorial expansion.

8. The Spanish Civil War

The Spanish Civil War began in July 1936 after a military uprising against the Republican government.

Germany and Italy supported Franco’s Nationalist forces, while the Soviet Union assisted the Republicans.

Britain and France pursued non-intervention, but the agreement was not effectively enforced.

The conflict strengthened cooperation between Germany and Italy and provided an opportunity to test military equipment and tactics.

The bombing of Guernica in April 1937 demonstrated the devastating impact of aerial attacks on civilian populations.

The Nationalist victory in 1939 established Franco’s dictatorship and further weakened the European democratic environment.

9. The Rome–Berlin Axis

Relations between Mussolini and Hitler became increasingly close during the 1930s.

The two regimes shared authoritarian political systems, anti-communism, militarism, and expansionist ambitions.

In October 1936, Mussolini referred to the political understanding between Rome and Berlin as an axis.

The relationship developed into a formal military and political partnership through the Pact of Steel, signed in May 1939.

This alignment increased the danger of a wider European conflict.

10. The Anschluss of Austria, 1938

Hitler sought to unite Austria with Germany, a policy known as the Anschluss.

In March 1938, German pressure and military intervention resulted in the annexation of Austria.

The annexation violated the post-war settlement but was not effectively opposed by Britain or France.

Germany gained additional population, territory, resources, and strategic advantages.

The success strengthened Hitler’s confidence and increased pressure on neighbouring Czechoslovakia.

11. The Sudetenland Crisis and Munich Agreement

The Sudetenland was a border region of Czechoslovakia with a substantial German-speaking population.

Hitler demanded its transfer to Germany, using the issue of ethnic self-determination to justify expansion.

Czechoslovakia possessed a modern army and defensive fortifications and had important diplomatic relationships with France and the Soviet Union.

To avoid war, Britain, France, Germany, and Italy met at Munich in September 1938.

The Munich Agreement allowed Germany to occupy the Sudetenland. Czechoslovakia was not represented as an equal participant in the negotiations.

British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain presented the agreement as a means of preserving peace.

The policy became the most prominent example of appeasement.

12. German Occupation of Czechoslovakia, 1939

In March 1939, German forces occupied Bohemia and Moravia, ending the independence of the remaining Czech lands.

Slovakia became a formally independent but German-dependent state.

This action demonstrated that Hitler’s ambitions extended beyond uniting German-speaking populations.

Britain and France recognised that further concessions would not guarantee peace.

On 31 March 1939, Britain announced a guarantee of assistance to Poland if its independence was threatened. France also maintained its commitment to Poland.

13. The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

On 23 August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, also known as the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.

The agreement was surprising because the two regimes were ideological enemies.

Its secret protocol divided parts of Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence. Poland was to be partitioned, while the Baltic region and other territories were assigned to the respective spheres.

For Hitler, the pact reduced the immediate danger of a two-front war and facilitated an attack on Poland.

For Stalin, it provided time to strengthen Soviet military capabilities and secure strategic territory.

The agreement removed an important obstacle to German aggression in Eastern Europe.

14. The Invasion of Poland, September 1939

Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939.

Hitler justified the attack through territorial claims and manufactured border incidents, including the staged Gleiwitz incident.

German forces employed coordinated operations involving aircraft, tanks, artillery, and rapidly advancing ground troops.

This approach became associated with the term Blitzkrieg, or lightning war.

The Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland on 17 September 1939 in accordance with the secret arrangements of the Nazi-Soviet Pact.

Poland was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union.

15. Britain and France Declare War

Britain and France had guaranteed assistance to Poland if its independence was threatened.

After Germany failed to withdraw its forces, both countries declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939.

Their declarations transformed the German-Polish conflict into a wider European war.

The Second World War had begun in Europe.

16. Why War Became Unavoidable

The outbreak of war resulted from the interaction of several developments:

1. Unresolved grievances arising from the First World War settlement.
2. The rise of aggressive authoritarian regimes.
3. The economic and political consequences of the Great Depression.
4. The failure of collective security.
5. The expansion of Japan, Italy, and Germany.
6. German rearmament and remilitarisation of the Rhineland.
7. The weakness of appeasement.
8. The destruction of Czechoslovak independence.
9. The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact.
10. Hitler’s decision to invade Poland.

These factors created an international environment in which diplomacy and international institutions could no longer prevent the use of large-scale military force.

Conclusion

The road to the Second World War was marked by a progressive breakdown of international cooperation and the growth of aggressive nationalism and militarism.

The failure of the League of Nations, the economic crisis, the expansionist policies of Germany, Italy, and Japan, and the inability of Britain and France to restrain aggression undermined the post-war international settlement.

Appeasement failed to satisfy Hitler, while the Nazi-Soviet Pact removed a major obstacle to German expansion in Eastern Europe. The invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 and the declarations of war by Britain and France on 3 September marked the beginning of the Second World War in Europe.

The period demonstrates how unresolved grievances, aggressive leadership, weak institutions, and failed diplomacy can combine to produce a major international conflict.

Key Takeaways

1. The First World War peace settlement left significant international grievances.
2. The League of Nations failed to prevent aggression by major powers.
3. The Great Depression strengthened extremist movements.
4. Japan occupied Manchuria in 1931.
5. Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935.
6. Germany began openly expanding its armed forces in 1935.
7. German troops remilitarised the Rhineland in 1936.
8. The Spanish Civil War strengthened German-Italian cooperation.
9. Germany annexed Austria in March 1938.
10. The Munich Agreement transferred the Sudetenland to Germany.
11. Germany occupied the remaining Czech lands in March 1939.
12. Britain and France guaranteed assistance to Poland.
13. Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact in August 1939.
14. Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939.
15. Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939.

Review Questions

1. What were the main weaknesses of the post-First World War international settlement?
2. How did the Great Depression contribute to the outbreak of war?
3. Explain the significance of Japanese expansionism in the 1930s.
4. Why did the League of Nations fail to prevent Italian aggression in Ethiopia?
5. How did German rearmament alter the European balance of power?
6. What was the significance of the Spanish Civil War?
7. Explain the development of the Rome–Berlin Axis.
8. What were the consequences of the Anschluss?
9. Why was the Munich Agreement important?
10. How did the occupation of Czechoslovakia change British and French policy?
11. What were the main provisions and consequences of the Nazi-Soviet Pact?
12. Why did Germany invade Poland?
13. Why did Britain and France declare war on Germany?
14. Assess the principal developments that led to the Second World War.

Further Reading

• Encyclopaedia Britannica: World War II
• The National WWII Museum
• Imperial War Museums
• A. J. P. Taylor, The Origins of the Second World War.
• Ian Kershaw, To Hell and Back: Europe 1914–1949.
• Zara Steiner, The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933–1939.