Book of Knowledge (BoK) World Affairs
Economic Liberalism 1. Introduction Economic liberalism is a school of economic thought that emphasizes individual economic freedom, private property, market competition, voluntary exchange, and the potential benefits of international trade. It holds that markets can coordinate economic activity efficiently when individuals and firms are able to make decisions within a stable legal and institutional framework….
Mercantilism 1. Introduction Mercantilism is one of the earliest major approaches to understanding the relationship between economic activity and state power. It emerged in Europe during the sixteenth century and remained influential through the eighteenth century, when expanding trade, colonial competition, and the consolidation of centralized states shaped international relations. Mercantilist thinkers and policymakers believed…
International Political Economy: Meaning and Scope 1. Introduction International Political Economy (IPE) is a major field of study that examines the relationship between politics and economics at the international level. It explores how states, markets, international institutions, businesses, and social groups influence the production, distribution, and use of wealth across borders. International politics and economics…
Global Governance and the Future of Multilateralism 1. Introduction Global governance refers to the rules, institutions, processes, and cooperative arrangements through which states and non-state actors address problems that cross national borders. It includes formal international organizations, treaties, diplomatic negotiations, regional institutions, public-private partnerships, and informal networks. Global governance is not the same as world…
Reform of Global Institutions 1. Introduction Global institutions are organizations and institutional frameworks that facilitate cooperation among states on issues affecting the international community. They include the United Nations, international financial institutions, the World Trade Organization, regional organizations, and specialized agencies. These institutions were developed to manage collective problems, establish rules, coordinate policies, and reduce…
International Sanctions 1. Introduction International sanctions are restrictive measures imposed by states or international organizations to influence the behaviour of governments, entities, or individuals. They may respond to threats to international peace and security, serious violations of international law, human rights abuses, terrorism, nuclear proliferation, or other policy concerns. Sanctions can restrict financial transactions, trade,…
International Environmental Law 1. Introduction International environmental law is the body of international rules, principles, treaties, and institutions that addresses environmental protection and the management of shared natural resources. It seeks to prevent environmental harm, promote cooperation among states, conserve biodiversity, control pollution, and support sustainable development. Environmental problems frequently cross national borders. Air pollution…
International Refugee Law 1. Introduction International refugee law is the body of international rules that protects people who are forced to leave their countries because of persecution and other circumstances recognized by applicable legal instruments. It establishes standards for refugee status, protection against return to serious danger, access to basic rights, and cooperation between states….
International Law of the Sea 1. Introduction The international law of the sea is the body of international rules governing the use of oceans, seas, and maritime spaces. It regulates maritime boundaries, navigation, resource exploitation, marine environmental protection, scientific research, and the rights and duties of coastal and other states. The law of the sea…
International Criminal Court 1. Introduction The International Criminal Court (ICC) is a permanent international court established to prosecute individuals accused of the gravest crimes of concern to the international community. These crimes are genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression, subject to the Court’s jurisdictional requirements. The ICC was created by…
International Court of Justice 1. Introduction The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. It settles legal disputes submitted to it by states and provides advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by authorized UN organs and specialized agencies. Established under the UN Charter in 1945, the…
UN Peacekeeping 1. Introduction United Nations peacekeeping is an international mechanism designed to help countries affected by conflict create conditions for sustainable peace. It involves the deployment of military personnel, police officers, and civilian specialists under UN authority to support ceasefires, protect civilians, facilitate political processes, and strengthen institutions. Peacekeeping is not expressly described as…
UN General Assembly 1. Introduction The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations. It provides a universal forum in which all UN member states can discuss international issues, express their positions, and participate in collective decision-making. It is often described as the most representative organ of…
UN Security Council 1. Introduction and Meaning The United Nations Security Council is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations and has primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security under the UN Charter. The Council is the central institution of the UN collective security system. It addresses threats to…
United Nations 1. Introduction and Meaning The United Nations (UN) is an international organization established in 1945 to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, promote international cooperation, and encourage respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It is the most comprehensive universal intergovernmental organization in the contemporary international system. Its membership…
Human Rights and International Relations 1. Meaning and Concept of Human Rights Human rights are fundamental rights and freedoms inherent to all human beings, irrespective of nationality, ethnicity, sex, language, religion, social origin, or other status. They protect human dignity and establish standards for how individuals should be treated by public authorities and, in certain…
International Humanitarian Law 1. Meaning and Definition International humanitarian law (IHL) is the branch of international law that seeks to limit the human suffering caused by armed conflict. It protects persons who are not, or are no longer, participating in hostilities and restricts the means and methods of warfare. It applies when the relevant legal…
Law of War and Armed Conflict 1. Meaning and Scope The law of war and armed conflict is the body of international legal rules governing the existence, conduct, and consequences of armed conflict. It addresses the protection of persons affected by hostilities, the permissible means and methods of warfare, the treatment of prisoners, the status…
Use of Force in International Law 1. Meaning and Scope The use of force in international law concerns the circumstances in which states may lawfully threaten or employ armed force in their international relations. It is one of the most important areas of the contemporary legal order because it directly affects sovereignty, territorial integrity, international…
Recognition of States and Governments 1. Meaning of Recognition in International Relations Recognition is an act or process through which a state acknowledges a particular legal or political status in international relations. The term most commonly refers to recognition of a state as an international legal person or recognition of a government as the authority…