Table of Contents
Concept of Culture
Culture is one of the central concepts in Sociology. It refers to the learned and shared system of values, beliefs, norms, symbols, language, knowledge, customs and practices through which members of a society understand the world and organize their social lives.
Culture distinguishes human social life from purely biological behavior. Human beings are born with biological needs, but they learn how to satisfy many of those needs through the culture of their society.
For example, all societies require food, but what people eat, how food is prepared, when it is eaten, how it is served and what foods are considered acceptable are largely shaped by culture.
Culture is the learned way of life of a society.
1. Definitions of Culture
Different sociologists and anthropologists have emphasized different dimensions of culture.
E. B. Tylor
The anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor provided one of the most influential early definitions of culture. He described culture as a complex whole involving knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs and other capabilities and habits acquired by people as members of society.
Tylor’s definition emphasizes two important characteristics:
Culture is acquired rather than biologically inherited.
Culture includes many dimensions of social life.
Bronislaw Malinowski
Malinowski viewed culture as an organized system that helps human beings satisfy their needs and function within society.
Ralph Linton
Linton emphasized culture as the learned behavior and shared patterns of life of members of a society.
Clifford Geertz
Geertz approached culture from an interpretive perspective and emphasized the meanings and symbols through which human beings understand their social world.
2. Origin of the Concept
The modern anthropological and sociological concept of culture developed particularly during the nineteenth century.
The term became increasingly important as scholars began comparing different societies and recognizing that human behavior could not be explained solely through biology.
Early anthropologists often studied:
- Customs
- Religion
- Kinship
- Marriage
- Language
- Rituals
- Material objects
- Social practices
The study of culture subsequently became central to both Sociology and Anthropology.
3. Culture as a Learned Phenomenon
Culture is learned, not inherited biologically.
A child is not born knowing:
- A particular language
- Social etiquette
- Religious practices
- National symbols
- Appropriate dress
- Rules of interaction
- Cultural traditions
These are learned through socialization.
Family, school, peers, religion, media and other institutions transmit cultural knowledge from one generation to another.
For example:
A child born in Pakistan can learn Urdu, Pashto, English or another language depending on the social environment in which the child grows up.
This demonstrates that culture is primarily acquired through social interaction rather than biological inheritance.
4. Culture as a Shared Phenomenon
Culture is not simply an individual’s personal behavior.
It consists of patterns that are shared by members of a social group.
Members of a society may share:
- Language
- Values
- Symbols
- Traditions
- Norms
- Historical memories
- Social expectations
However, sharing does not mean that everyone thinks or behaves identically.
A society can contain considerable cultural diversity while still possessing broad cultural patterns.
5. Culture as a Symbolic System
Human beings communicate through symbols.
A symbol is something that carries a socially recognized meaning.
Examples include:
- Words
- Flags
- Religious symbols
- Gestures
- Clothing
- National monuments
- Colors
A national flag, for example, is not merely a piece of fabric. It represents ideas such as:
- Nation
- Identity
- Sovereignty
- History
- Collective belonging
The meaning of symbols is learned through society.
6. Culture and Language
Language is one of the most important components of culture.
It allows societies to:
- Communicate
- Preserve knowledge
- Express emotions
- Transmit traditions
- Develop collective identities
- Teach future generations
Language also influences how people categorize and interpret their social world.
Through language, cultural knowledge can be transmitted across generations.
Thus:
Language is both a product of culture and a major mechanism for transmitting culture.
7. Culture and Socialization
Culture is transmitted primarily through socialization.
A newborn enters society without knowledge of its cultural rules. Through interaction with family, schools, peers, religious institutions, media and other social environments, the individual gradually learns what society considers appropriate.
For example, children learn:
- How to speak
- How to behave toward elders
- How to interact with peers
- What is considered polite or impolite
- What is considered right or wrong
- How to dress
- How to participate in social ceremonies
Socialization therefore connects the individual with culture and society.
8. Material and Non-Material Culture
A major distinction in Sociology is between material culture and non-material culture.
8.1 Material Culture
Material culture consists of the physical objects and technologies created and used by a society.
Examples include:
- Houses
- Clothing
- Tools
- Vehicles
- Buildings
- Machines
- Books
- Smartphones
- Computers
Material culture reflects the technological and economic conditions of a society.
8.2 Non-Material Culture
Non-material culture consists of ideas, meanings and social patterns.
Examples include:
- Values
- Norms
- Beliefs
- Language
- Customs
- Traditions
- Symbols
- Knowledge
Comparison
| Material Culture | Non-Material Culture |
|---|---|
| Physical objects | Ideas and meanings |
| Technology | Values |
| Buildings | Norms |
| Clothing | Beliefs |
| Tools | Language |
| Machines | Customs |
Both dimensions interact with each other.
For example, the smartphone is part of material culture, while the norms governing how people should use smartphones in classrooms, workplaces or family gatherings belong to non-material culture.
9. Culture and Society
Culture and society are closely related but not identical.
Society refers broadly to a population of people who interact within a shared social system.
Culture refers to the learned meanings, values, norms, beliefs, symbols, knowledge and practices through which members of that society live.
A useful distinction is:
Society is the organized social group; culture is its learned way of life.
Neither can be properly understood in isolation.
10. Culture and Human Behavior
Culture strongly influences human behavior by establishing expectations about what is considered:
- Appropriate
- Inappropriate
- Moral
- Immoral
- Normal
- Abnormal
- Respectful
- Disrespectful
For example, forms of greeting differ across cultures.
A handshake, bow, embrace or verbal greeting may carry different meanings in different societies.
This demonstrates that many apparently ordinary behaviors are socially and culturally learned.
11. Culture and Identity
Culture contributes significantly to individual and collective identity.
People may identify themselves through:
- Language
- Family traditions
- Religion
- Food
- Dress
- History
- Music
- Literature
- National symbols
- Regional traditions
Cultural identity provides people with a sense of:
Who we are
Where we belong
What we share with others
Cultural identity can therefore strengthen social solidarity and collective belonging.
12. Culture and Values
Values are shared ideas about what a society considers desirable, important or morally appropriate.
Examples include:
- Honesty
- Justice
- Freedom
- Respect
- Equality
- Loyalty
- Hospitality
Values influence social behavior and provide broad standards against which actions can be evaluated.
Values are therefore an important foundation of culture.
13. Culture and Norms
Norms are socially accepted rules or expectations concerning behavior.
For example:
- Waiting one’s turn
- Respecting elders
- Following traffic rules
- Observing workplace procedures
- Dressing appropriately for particular occasions
Norms translate broader cultural values into expectations about behavior.
A simplified relationship is:
Values → Norms → Behavior
For example:
Value: Respect for elders
Norm: Younger people should greet elders respectfully.
Behavior: A young person stands or offers a respectful greeting when an elder enters.
14. Culture and Beliefs
Beliefs are ideas or convictions that people accept as true or meaningful.
Beliefs may concern:
- Religion
- Society
- Nature
- Morality
- Human behavior
- History
- The future
Beliefs influence how people interpret events and make decisions.
Different societies may have very different beliefs about the same phenomenon.
15. Culture and Social Order
Culture contributes to social order by providing shared expectations.
If members of society understand broadly:
- How to communicate
- How to behave
- What is acceptable
- What is unacceptable
- What obligations they have toward others
social interaction becomes more predictable.
Culture therefore helps coordinate social behavior without requiring formal instructions for every action.
16. Culture and Social Change
Culture is not static.
It changes as societies experience:
- Technological innovation
- Economic development
- Migration
- Urbanization
- Education
- Political change
- Globalization
- Social movements
- Interaction with other cultures
For example, the spread of smartphones and social media has changed:
- Communication
- Dating
- Education
- Work
- Entertainment
- Political participation
- Family interaction
Thus, culture both maintains continuity and adapts to changing social conditions.
17. Culture and Technology
Technology is closely connected with culture.
Technology can transform cultural practices, while cultural values influence how technology is adopted.
For example:
Internet → New forms of communication
Social media → New forms of identity and interaction
Artificial Intelligence → New questions about work, education, creativity and human-machine relationships
Technology therefore becomes both a product of culture and a force influencing cultural change.
18. Culture Is Dynamic
Culture should not be understood as a fixed collection of traditions.
It is continuously:
- Created
- Learned
- Shared
- Modified
- Transmitted
- Challenged
- Adapted
Younger generations may preserve some traditions while changing others.
Migration can introduce new cultural practices.
Globalization can create cultural exchange.
Technology can transform traditional practices.
Therefore:
Culture provides continuity while remaining capable of change.
19. Culture and Subculture
A subculture is a cultural pattern shared by a group within a larger society.
Examples may include:
- Youth culture
- Professional cultures
- Occupational cultures
- Sports cultures
- Online communities
- Regional cultures
A subculture may share the broader culture of society while developing distinctive:
- Language
- Values
- Styles
- Norms
- Symbols
- Practices
For example, programmers may develop specialized terminology and professional norms that are not equally familiar to the wider population.
20. Culture and Counterculture
A counterculture is a group whose values, norms or practices significantly challenge important elements of the dominant culture.
Countercultures can emerge around:
- Political movements
- Social movements
- Youth movements
- Alternative lifestyles
- Cultural resistance
Counterculture demonstrates that culture is not always universally accepted within a society.
21. Culture and Cultural Integration
A society may contain many cultural groups while maintaining a degree of social integration.
Cultural integration can occur through:
- Shared institutions
- Common language
- Education
- National identity
- Political participation
- Economic interaction
- Shared laws
However, excessive pressure for cultural uniformity can also produce marginalization or conflict.
Modern societies therefore face the challenge of balancing:
Common Social Identity + Cultural Diversity
22. Culture in the Pakistani Context
Pakistan contains considerable cultural diversity.
Its cultural landscape includes differences in:
- Languages
- Regional traditions
- Food
- Clothing
- Music
- Literature
- Family practices
- Rural and urban lifestyles
Major regional cultural traditions include those associated with:
- Punjab
- Sindh
- Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
- Balochistan
- Gilgit-Baltistan
- Azad Jammu and Kashmir
At the same time, people share broader national institutions and identities.
This makes Pakistani society a useful example of how unity and cultural diversity can coexist within one society.
23. Functions of Culture
Culture performs several important functions.
23.1 Provides Identity
It gives individuals a sense of belonging.
23.2 Regulates Behavior
Norms and values guide conduct.
23.3 Facilitates Communication
Language and symbols allow people to communicate.
23.4 Transmits Knowledge
Culture allows knowledge to pass between generations.
23.5 Creates Social Cohesion
Shared values and traditions can strengthen collective solidarity.
23.6 Provides Meaning
Culture helps people interpret their experiences and the world around them.
23.7 Facilitates Adaptation
Cultural knowledge helps societies respond to changing environments.
24. Culture as Learned, Shared and Symbolic
For examination purposes, the concept of culture can be remembered through three foundational characteristics:
Learned
Culture is acquired through socialization.
Shared
Culture is collectively maintained by members of a social group.
Symbolic
Culture relies heavily on symbols and meanings.
These characteristics distinguish culture from purely biological behavior.
25. Culture and Biology
Culture does not eliminate biology, but it strongly influences how biological needs are expressed.
Humans require:
- Food
- Shelter
- Sleep
- Reproduction
- Security
Yet societies develop different cultural patterns for satisfying these needs.
For example, the biological need for food is universal, but cultures differ in:
- What is eaten
- How food is prepared
- When meals occur
- Who eats with whom
- What foods are considered sacred or forbidden
This illustrates the interaction between nature and nurture.
26. Conclusion
Culture is the learned, shared and symbolic way of life of a society. It encompasses material objects as well as non-material elements such as values, norms, beliefs, language and symbols.
Culture shapes how individuals understand the world, interact with others and develop their identities. At the same time, individuals and social groups actively reproduce, modify and sometimes challenge culture.
Culture therefore performs a dual role:
It provides continuity to society while also providing the framework through which societies adapt and change.
Understanding culture is consequently essential for understanding socialization, social institutions, identity, social order, diversity and social change.
36 Key Takeaways for Exams
- Culture is the learned way of life of a society.
- E. B. Tylor provided one of the classic anthropological definitions of culture.
- Culture includes knowledge, beliefs, values, norms, symbols, language, customs and practices.
- Culture is learned rather than biologically inherited.
- Socialization is the major process through which culture is learned.
- Culture is shared by members of a social group.
- Culture is symbolic because human beings attach socially learned meanings to symbols.
- Language is a major component and transmitter of culture.
- Material culture consists of physical objects and technologies.
- Non-material culture consists of ideas, meanings, values, norms and beliefs.
- Society and culture are related but distinct concepts.
- Society refers broadly to organized social relationships, while culture refers to the learned way of life within those relationships.
- Culture influences individual behavior by establishing social expectations.
- Values are shared ideas about what is desirable or important.
- Norms are socially accepted rules or expectations concerning behavior.
- Beliefs are ideas or convictions accepted as true or meaningful.
- Symbols are objects, words or actions carrying socially recognized meanings.
- Culture contributes to social identity.
- Culture contributes to social order by making behavior more predictable.
- Culture facilitates communication among members of society.
- Culture transmits knowledge from one generation to another.
- Culture is dynamic rather than completely static.
- Technology is both a product of culture and a force influencing cultural change.
- Migration and globalization contribute to cultural exchange.
- A subculture is a distinctive cultural pattern within a larger society.
- A counterculture challenges significant elements of the dominant culture.
- Cultural diversity can exist within a broader national or societal identity.
- Culture can create social cohesion through shared values and traditions.
- Culture also provides meanings through which people interpret their experiences.
- Cultural practices differ even when societies share similar biological needs.
- Culture demonstrates the importance of social learning in human behavior.
- Pakistani society contains substantial regional, linguistic and cultural diversity.
- Culture influences social institutions such as family, education, religion and politics.
- Culture can preserve traditions while simultaneously adapting to new circumstances.
- Cultural change can result from technology, urbanization, migration, education, social movements and globalization.
- Culture and society have a reciprocal relationship: culture shapes social life, while social conditions also transform culture.
Exam Focus
“What is culture? Discuss its major characteristics and functions.”
A strong CSS/PMS answer should organize the discussion around:
Definition → Learned Nature → Shared Nature → Symbolic Nature → Material and Non-Material Culture → Values → Norms → Beliefs → Language → Socialization → Identity → Social Order → Social Change
The central analytical argument is:
Culture shapes the behavior, identity and institutions of society, but culture itself is continuously produced and transformed through social interaction and changing social conditions.
This leads directly to the broader question:
Does culture shape society, or does society shape culture?
The sociological answer is both: the relationship is reciprocal and dynamic.