Deviance

Deviance is a fundamental concept in sociology concerned with behaviour, beliefs, or characteristics that violate the norms and expectations of a society or social group.

Deviance is not simply a matter of individual wrongdoing. Sociologists examine how societies define deviance, why people engage in deviant behaviour, how institutions respond to it, and how social reactions can themselves influence individuals.

1 Definition of Deviance

Deviance is behaviour, belief, or a social characteristic that violates the accepted norms of a particular society or social group.

The key point is that deviance is socially defined.

What is considered deviant in one society, community, or historical period may be considered normal in another.

2 Deviance and Social Norms

Deviance can be understood only in relation to norms.

Norm → Expected behaviour

Deviance → Violation of expected behaviour

For example:

• Breaking an established social custom may be deviant.
• Violating a dress norm may be considered deviant in one community but normal in another.
• Breaking criminal law constitutes a form of deviance, but not all deviance is criminal.

3 Deviance and Crime

Deviance and crime are related but not identical.

Deviance: Violation of social norms.

Crime: Violation of formally established criminal law.

Therefore:

All crime is generally deviant, but not all deviance is crime.

For example, unusual clothing may be socially deviant without being illegal.

4 Characteristics of Deviance

4.1 Socially Defined

Deviance depends on social norms.

4.2 Relative

Behaviour may be deviant in one social context but not another.

4.3 Dynamic

Definitions of deviance can change over time.

4.4 Contextual

The same behaviour may be judged differently depending on:

• Place
• Culture
• Social group
• Historical period
• Social status

4.5 Subject to Social Reaction

Deviance often becomes significant when society reacts to it.

5 Cultural Relativity of Deviance

Different societies have different norms.

Therefore, behaviour considered deviant in one culture may be accepted in another.

This demonstrates the relationship between:

Culture → Norms → Definitions of deviance

6 Historical Relativity of Deviance

Definitions of deviance can change over time.

Practices once considered unacceptable may become accepted, while previously accepted practices may become condemned.

Therefore:

Deviance is not a fixed category; it changes with society.

7 Positive Deviance

Not all deviance is necessarily harmful.

Positive deviance refers to behaviour that violates conventional norms but produces socially valued or beneficial outcomes.

Examples may include:

• Challenging unjust traditions
• Exceptional altruism
• Innovative behaviour
• Civil disobedience against unjust rules

Social progress sometimes begins with individuals challenging established expectations.

8 Negative Deviance

Negative deviance generally refers to behaviour that violates norms and produces social harm.

Examples include:

• Violence
• Theft
• Vandalism
• Fraud

Some negative deviance may also constitute crime.

9 Primary Deviance

Edwin Lemert distinguished between primary and secondary deviance.

Primary deviance refers to initial or occasional norm violations that do not necessarily become part of an individual’s identity.

For example:

Minor violation → Limited social reaction → Person continues conventional life

10 Secondary Deviance

Secondary deviance develops when an individual begins to adopt a deviant identity following social reactions and labeling.

The process can be:

Deviant act → Label → Social rejection → Deviant identity → Further deviance

This is central to labeling theory.

11 Edwin Lemert

Edwin Lemert developed the distinction between:

• Primary deviance
• Secondary deviance

He emphasized the importance of social reactions in transforming occasional deviance into a more established identity.

12 Émile Durkheim and Deviance

Émile Durkheim argued that deviance is a normal feature of society.

According to Durkheim, no society can achieve complete conformity.

Deviance can perform important social functions.

13 Deviance as Normal

Durkheim’s argument can be summarized:

Society → Different individuals and interests → Norm violations → Deviance

Therefore, some level of deviance exists in every society.

14 Deviance and Social Boundaries

Deviance can clarify the boundaries of acceptable behaviour.

When society reacts against deviance, it reinforces its norms.

For example:

Violation → Collective condemnation → Norm becomes clearer

15 Deviance and Social Solidarity

Public reactions to serious violations can bring members of society together around shared values.

This can strengthen collective consciousness.

16 Deviance and Social Change

Deviance can sometimes challenge outdated norms.

Individuals who challenge established practices may initially be labeled deviant but later contribute to social reform.

Thus:

Deviance → Challenge to existing norms → Social debate → Possible social change

17 Durkheim and Anomie

Durkheim introduced the concept of anomie, referring broadly to a condition of weakened or disrupted normative regulation.

Rapid social change can weaken established norms and expectations.

This may create uncertainty regarding appropriate behaviour.

18 Robert K. Merton and Anomie

Robert K. Merton developed Durkheim’s concept into a theory of strain.

He argued that deviance can result when societies emphasize culturally approved goals but provide unequal access to legitimate means of achieving them.

For example:

Success valued → Legitimate opportunities unequal → Strain → Alternative adaptations

19 Merton’s Five Modes of Adaptation

Merton identified five adaptations:

Adaptation	Cultural Goals	Legitimate Means
Conformity	Accept	Accept
Innovation	Accept	Reject
Ritualism	Reduce/reject	Accept
Retreatism	Reject	Reject
Rebellion	Replace	Replace

20 Conformity

Conformists accept both:

• Cultural goals
• Legitimate means

This is the most common form of adaptation.

21 Innovation

Innovators accept socially approved goals but reject legitimate means.

For example, an individual may desire financial success but pursue it through illegal activities.

22 Ritualism

Ritualists abandon or reduce commitment to culturally emphasized goals while continuing to follow institutionalized means.

23 Retreatism

Retreatists reject both dominant goals and legitimate means.

Merton associated this category with people who withdraw from conventional social expectations.

24 Rebellion

Rebels reject existing goals and means and seek to replace them with alternative ones.

Rebellion differs from other adaptations because it seeks structural transformation.

25 Labeling Theory

Labeling theory emphasizes that deviance is partly produced through social reactions.

Associated particularly with Howard Becker, the approach asks:

Who defines behaviour as deviant, and who has the power to apply the label?

26 Howard Becker

Becker argued that deviance is not simply an inherent quality of an act.

Instead, deviance emerges through a process of:

Rule creation → Rule enforcement → Labeling → Social reaction

Thus:

Deviance is partly a product of social definition.

27 Labeling and Social Identity

Once an individual receives a powerful deviant label, other people may begin to interpret their behaviour through that label.

This can affect:

• Employment
• Education
• Family relationships
• Reputation
• Self-image

28 Stigma

Erving Goffman examined stigma as a discrediting social attribute that can negatively affect an individual’s social identity.

A deviant label may therefore become a stigma.

29 Stigma and Social Exclusion

Stigmatized individuals may experience:

• Rejection
• Discrimination
• Isolation
• Reduced opportunities

This can make reintegration more difficult.

30 Differential Association Theory

Edwin Sutherland developed Differential Association Theory.

He argued that criminal and deviant behaviour is learned through interaction with others.

People learn:

• Techniques
• Motives
• Attitudes
• Rationalizations

through social relationships.

31 Social Learning and Deviance

The basic process is:

Interaction → Exposure to definitions → Learning → Behaviour

This means deviance can be socially learned rather than simply inherited.

32 Differential Association and Peer Groups

Peer groups can be particularly influential because individuals may learn deviant attitudes and techniques from close associates.

This helps explain certain forms of:

• Juvenile delinquency
• Gang behaviour
• Organized crime

33 Social Control Theory

Social control theories ask a different question:

Why do most people conform rather than become deviant?

Travis Hirschi argued that strong social bonds discourage deviance.

34 Hirschi’s Social Bonds

The four major elements are:

1. Attachment
2. Commitment
3. Involvement
4. Belief

Strong social bonds increase conformity.

35 Attachment

Attachment refers to emotional connections with:

• Parents
• Teachers
• Friends
• Community

Strong attachment increases concern about social approval.

36 Commitment

Commitment refers to investment in conventional goals such as:

• Education
• Career
• Family

A person with significant conventional investments may avoid behaviour that threatens them.

37 Involvement

Involvement refers to participation in conventional activities.

Examples include:

• Education
• Employment
• Sports
• Community activities

38 Belief

Belief refers to acceptance of social norms and the legitimacy of conventional rules.

39 Conflict Perspective

Conflict theorists emphasize the relationship between deviance and power.

They ask:

• Who creates the rules?
• Whose interests do the rules serve?
• Who gets labeled deviant?
• Why are some forms of harmful behaviour punished more heavily than others?

40 Marxist Perspective

Marxist approaches connect deviance to:

• Class inequality
• Economic structures
• Power
• Exploitation

They emphasize that social conditions can contribute to deviant behaviour and that legal definitions may reflect existing power structures.

41 Feminist Perspective

Feminist sociology examines how gender influences:

• Definitions of deviance
• Experiences of victimization
• Criminal justice responses
• Social expectations

It also challenges theories that historically treated male experiences as universal.

42 Interactionist Perspective

Interactionists focus on everyday interactions and social meanings.

They examine:

• Labeling
• Stigma
• Social reactions
• Identity
• Meaning-making

43 Deviance and Social Class

Deviance can be interpreted differently depending on social class.

For example, certain forms of elite misconduct may receive different social and institutional responses from street-level offences.

This raises questions about:

• Selective enforcement
• Access to legal resources
• Institutional power

44 White-Collar Deviance

Edwin Sutherland introduced the concept of white-collar crime, referring to offences committed by persons of relatively respectable or high social status in the course of their occupation.

Examples can include:

• Fraud
• Embezzlement
• Corporate misconduct

It demonstrates that deviance is not confined to economically disadvantaged groups.

45 Deviance and Social Inequality

Unequal access to:

• Education
• Employment
• Wealth
• Political influence

can affect both patterns of deviance and society’s responses to it.

46 Deviance and Youth

Adolescence can involve experimentation with:

• Identity
• Peer relationships
• Risk-taking

Peer groups may therefore play an important role in certain forms of juvenile deviance.

47 Deviance and Technology

Digital technology has created new forms of deviant behaviour, including:

• Online harassment
• Cyberbullying
• Digital fraud
• Identity-related offences
• Unauthorized access to systems

Definitions of digital deviance continue to evolve with technological change.

48 Deviance and Social Media

Social media can simultaneously:

Increase deviance → Through anonymity, peer reinforcement, and online communities

and

Increase social control → Through public exposure, reporting, and reputational consequences

Therefore, digital society creates a complex relationship between deviance and social control.

49 Deviance and Social Control

Societies respond to deviance through:

Informal Control

• Ridicule
• Criticism
• Shame
• Ostracism
• Social rejection

Formal Control

• Police
• Courts
• Fines
• Imprisonment
• Institutional discipline

The intensity of the response depends on the nature and perceived seriousness of the behaviour.

50 Deviance and Social Change

Deviance can be conservative or transformative.

It can:

Reinforce boundaries by provoking condemnation.

Or:

Challenge boundaries by questioning established norms.

This dual role makes deviance sociologically significant.

51 Positive Functions of Deviance

Following Durkheim, deviance may:

• Clarify moral boundaries
• Reinforce social norms
• Promote social solidarity
• Encourage social change
• Provide opportunities for reform

52 Negative Consequences of Deviance

Deviance can also produce:

• Victimization
• Fear
• Social instability
• Loss of trust
• Economic costs
• Social exclusion

Therefore, deviance can have both functional and dysfunctional consequences.

53 Deviance and Moral Entrepreneurship

Howard Becker discussed moral entrepreneurs, individuals or groups who campaign to create or enforce rules defining particular behaviours as unacceptable.

They may influence:

• Laws
• Public opinion
• Institutional practices

This highlights the role of power in defining deviance.

54 Deviance and Social Construction

The social construction perspective emphasizes that categories such as deviance are created through social processes.

The important question is not only:

“Why did the person behave this way?”

but also:

“Why does society define this behaviour as deviant?”

55 Deviance and Relative Norms

There is no universal list of deviant behaviours applicable to every society.

A behaviour may be:

Normal in Group A → Deviant in Group B

or:

Deviant in one historical period → Accepted later

This demonstrates the relativity of deviance.

56 Exam Focus

56.1 Key Concepts

1. Deviance: Violation of socially accepted norms.
2. Primary Deviance: Initial or occasional norm violation that does not necessarily become part of one’s identity.
3. Secondary Deviance: Deviance that develops following social reaction and labeling.
4. Anomie: Condition of weakened or disrupted normative regulation.
5. Strain Theory: Merton’s explanation of deviance arising from tension between cultural goals and legitimate means.
6. Labeling Theory: Perspective emphasizing the role of social reactions in defining and producing deviance.
7. Stigma: A discrediting social attribute that negatively affects social identity.
8. Differential Association: Theory that deviant behaviour is learned through social interaction.
9. Social Bond Theory: Explanation that strong social bonds discourage deviance.
10. White-Collar Crime: Crime committed by persons of relatively high social status in occupational contexts.
11. Moral Entrepreneur: Person or group seeking to create, enforce, or redefine social rules.
12. Positive Deviance: Norm violation that may produce socially beneficial outcomes.

56.2 Important Thinkers

Émile Durkheim: Deviance as normal; functions of deviance; anomie.

Robert K. Merton: Strain theory and five modes of adaptation.

Edwin Lemert: Primary and secondary deviance.

Howard Becker: Labeling theory and moral entrepreneurship.

Edwin Sutherland: Differential association and white-collar crime.

Travis Hirschi: Social Bond Theory.

Erving Goffman: Stigma and social identity.

56.3 Likely Examination Questions

1. Define deviance and explain its major characteristics.
2. Why is deviance considered a relative concept?
3. Discuss Durkheim’s functionalist explanation of deviance.
4. Explain Durkheim’s concept of anomie.
5. Discuss Merton’s Strain Theory of deviance.
6. Explain Merton’s five modes of adaptation.
7. Discuss Labeling Theory with reference to Howard Becker.
8. Differentiate between primary and secondary deviance.
9. Explain Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory.
10. Discuss Hirschi’s Social Bond Theory.
11. Explain the relationship between deviance and social control.
12. Discuss the role of stigma in the development of deviant identities.
13. Explain the relationship between deviance and social change.
14. Discuss the sociological significance of white-collar deviance.
15. “Deviance is not simply an attribute of an act; it is also a product of social reaction.” Discuss.
16. “Every society produces deviance, and deviance can sometimes contribute to social change.” Examine.
17. “Who has the power to define deviance?” Discuss from an interactionist and conflict perspective.

56.4 One-Line Exam Insight

Deviance is socially defined behaviour that violates accepted norms, and sociology explains it not only through individual behaviour but also through social structure, strain, learning, labeling, social control, and power.